EXPENDITURE  (omitting fractions) See also:

• YEAR

Year . See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

Ordinary Extraordinary See also:

• TOTAL

Total Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures (millions of yen) . (millions of yen) . (millions of yen) . 1878-9 56 5 61 1883–4 68 15 83 1888–9 66 15 81 1893-4 64 20 84 1898–9 119 I01 220 1903–4 170 8o 250 1908-9 427 193 62o It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867 and 1908 . 1 The See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese fiscal year is from See also:

• APRIL

April I to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 31.The See also:

• SOURCES

sources from which See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue is obtained are as follow:—ORDINARY REVENUE 1894-5 . 1898–9 . 1903-4 . 1908-9 . millions millions millions millions of yen. of yen. of yen. of yen . Taxes 70.50 96.20 146.10 299.61 Receipts from stamps 14.75 33.00 96.87 164.66 and Public Under- takings Various Receipts 4.58 3.67 8.15 11.48 It appears from the above that during 15 years the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation increased fourfold . But a correction has to be applied, first, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of customs dues, neither of which can properly be called See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general imposts .

The former See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew from 16 millions in 1894–1895 to 72 millions in 1908–1909, and the latter from 5: millions to 411 millions . If these increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called, grew from 70.5 millions in 1894–1895 to 207.86 millions in 1908–1909, an increase of somewhat less than three-See also:

• FOLD

fold . Otherwise stated, the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden per unit of See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in 1894–1895 was 3s . 6d., whereas in 1908–1909 it was 8s . 4d . To understand the principle of Japanese taxation and the manner in which the above development took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, taxes separately . The See also:

• LAND

land tax is the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal source of revenue . It was originally fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio was reduced to 21%, on which basis the tax yielded Land Tax. from 37 to 38 million yen annually . After the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with See also:

• CHINA

China (1894–1895) the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government proposed to increase this See also:

• IMPOST (through the O. Fr. from Lat. impositum, a thing laid upon another; the modern French is impot)

impost in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to obtain funds for an extensive See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme of useful public See also:

• WORKS

works and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded armaments (known subsequently as the first See also:

• POST

post bellum programme ") . By that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market value of agricultural land had largely appreciated owing to improved communications, and See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban land commanded greatly enhanced prices . But the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of the See also:

• DIET

diet, considering itself See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any increase of the tax . Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, and then only on See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition that the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change should not be operative for more than 5 years .

The amended rates were 3.3% on rural lands and 5% on urban See also:

• BUILDING

building sites . Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000 yen, but at the end of the five-year See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period it would have reverted to its old figure, had not war with See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia broken out . An increase was then made so that the impost varied from 3 % to 171 % according to the class of land, and under this new See also:

• SYSTEM

system the tax yielded 85 millions . Thus the exigencies of two See also:

• WARS

wars had augmented it from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907 . The income tax was introduced in 1887 . It was on a graduated See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, varying from 1% on incomes of not less than 300 yen, to 3 % on incomes of 30,000 yen and upwards . At theseinnomeTax. rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of about 2,000,000 yen . In 1899, a revision was effected for the purposes of the first post bellum programme . This revision increased the number of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 yen See also:

• STANDING

standing at the bottom and incomes of 100,000 yen or upwards at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, the minimum and maximum rates being 1% and 51% . The tax now produced approximately 8,000,000 yen . Finally in 1904, when war See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minimum now becoming 2 %, and the maximum 8'2 % . Thus revised, the tax yields a revenue of 27,000,000 yen .

The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China, and the rates have remained unchanged . For the purposes of the tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes, Business and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale and and See also:

• RETAIL

retail), on rental value of buildings, on number of employees and on amount of See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . The yield from the tax grows steadily . It was only 4,500,000 yen in 1897, but it figured at 22,000,000 yen in the budget for 1908-1909 . The above three imposts constitute the only See also:

• DIRECT

direct taxes in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan . Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic liquors . It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly Tax on speaking, in 1878; still further increased thenceforth at intervals of about 3 years, until it is now approximately Licotrs twenty times as heavy as it was originally . The liquor Liquors. taxed is mainly See also:

• SAKE

sake; the See also:

• RATE

rate is about 50 •sen (one See also:

• SHILLING

shilling) per See also:

• GALLON

gallon, and the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual yield is 72,000,000 yen . In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, the customs dues were fixed on a basis of so% ad valorem, but this was almost immediately changed to a nominal 5% and a real 3% . The customs then yielded a very Customs See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty return—not more than three or four million yen —and the Japanese government had no discretionary See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to alter the rates . Strenuous efforts to change this system were at length successful, and, in 1899, the See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff was divided into two sections, conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being governed by a treaty valid for 12 years; those in the latter being fixed at Japan's will . Things remained thus until the war with Russia See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State Revenue .

compelled a revision of the statutory tariff . Under this system the ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about 15.65 % . The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 yen . In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence Other before the war of 1904–5, and some created for the purpose Taxes . of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post bellum programme . Taxes in existence before 1904–1905: Yield Name . (millions of yen) . Tax on soy 4 Tax on See also:

• SUGAR

sugar 161 See also:

• MINING

Mining tax 2 Tax on bourses 2 Tax on issue of See also:

• BANK

bank-notes 1 See also:

• TONNAGE

Tonnage dues Taxes created on account of the war (1904–5) or in its immediate sequel: Yield Name . (millions of yen) . See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

Consumption tax on textile fabrics 191 Tax on dealers in patent medicines Tax on communications 21 Consumption tax on kerosene 11 See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession tax 11 Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions; the income tax by 19 millions; the business tax by 15 millions; and the tax on alcoholic liquors by 15 millions . On the whole, if taxes of general incidence and those of See also:

• SPECIAL

special incidence be lumped together, it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 yen before the war to 320,000,000 after it . The government of Japan carries on many manufacturing under-takings for purposes of military and See also:

• NAVAL

naval equipment, for See also:

• SHIP

ship- building, for the construction of railway See also:

• ROLLING

rolling stock, State for the manufacture of See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph and See also:

• LIGHT

light-house Monopolies materials, for See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel-making, for See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing, and maim- for See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper-making and so forth .

There are 48 of these facture' institutions, giving employment to io8,0oo male operatives and 23,000 See also:

• FEMALE

female, together with 63,000 labourers . But the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial results do not appear independently in the general budget . Three other government undertakings, however,constitute important budgetary items: they are, the profits derived from the postal and telegraph services, 39,000,000 yen; secondly, from forests, 13,000,000 yen; and thirdly, from See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, 37,000,000 yen . The government further exercises a See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of three important staples, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt and camphor . In each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the crude See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is produced by private individuals from whom it is taken over at a See also:

• FAIR

fair See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price by the government, and, having been manufactured (if necessary), it is resold by government agents at fixed prices . The tobacco monopoly yields a profit of some 33,000,000 yen; the salt monopoly a profit of 12,000,000 yen, and the camphor monopoly a profit of I,000,000 yen . Thus the ordinary revenue of the state consisted in 1908–1909 of : Yen . Proceeds of taxes . . 320,000,000 Proceeds of state enterprises (posts and tele- graphs, forests and railways) . 89,000,000 Proceeds of monopolies 56,000,000 Sundries II,000,000 Total 476,000,000 The ordinary expenditures of the nine departments of state aggre- gated—in 1908–1909—427,000,000 yen, so that there was a surplus revenue of 49,000,000 yen . Japanese budgets have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long included an extraordinary See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, so called because it embodies outlays of a special and terminable Extraordinary See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as distinguished from ordinary and perpetu-Extrartarer. ally recurring expenditures . The items in this extra- ordinary section possessed deep See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the years 1896 and 1907, because they disclosed the special programmes mapped out by Japanese financiers and statesmen after the wars with China and Russia .

Both programmes had the same bases—expansion of armaments and development of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country's material resources . After her war with China, Japan received a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain intimation that she must either fight again after a few years or resign herself to a career of insignificance on the confines of the Far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . No other See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation could be assigned to the See also:

• ACTION

action of Russia, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France in requiring her to retrocede the territory which she had acquired by right of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest . Japan therefore made See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for the doubling of her See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army and her See also:

• NAVY

navy, for the growth of a See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine qualified to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply a sufficiency of See also:

• TROOP (an adaptation of Fr. troupe, O. Fr. trope; cf. Ital. troppa, troppa; Med. Lat. truppus; the origin is doubtful; suggestions have been made that it represents a German conception of Latin turba, crowd, or is an adaptation of Norw. tarp, flock)

troop-See also:

• SHIPS

ships, and for the development of resources which should lighten the burden of these outlays . The war with Russia ensued nine years after these preparations had begun, and Japan emerged victorious . It then seemed to the onlooking nations that she would See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest from her warlike efforts . On the contrary, just as she had behaved after her war with China, so she now behaved after her war with Russia—made arrange-meats to See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double her army and navy and to develop her material resources . The government drafted for the year 1907–1908 a budget with three salient features . First, instead of proceeding to See also:

• DEAL

deal in a leisurely manner with the greatly increased See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, Japan's financiers made dispositions to pay it off completely in the space of years . Secondly, a total outlay of 422,000,000 yen was set down Lr improving and expanding the army and the navy . Thirdly, expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 yen were estimated for productive purposes . All these outlays, included in the extraordinary section of the budget, were spread over a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of years commencing in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements would reach their maximum in the fiscal year 1908–1909 and would thenceforth decline with growing rapidity .

To See also:

• FINANCE

finance this programme three See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, increased taxation, yielding some 3o millions yearly; domestic loans, varying from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary revenue amounting to from 45 to 75 millions . There were also some exceptional and temporary See also:

• ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assetz, mod. Fr. asset, " enough")

assets: such as 100,000,000 yen remaining over from the war fund; 50 millions paid by Russia for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of her See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in Japan; occasional sales of state properties and so forth . But the backbone of the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above . The house of representatives unanimously approved this See also:

• PRO

pro-gramme . By the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with something like consternation, and a very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time sufficed to demonstrate its impracticability . From the beginning of 1907 a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of commercial and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial depression settled down upon Japan, partly because of so See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal a programme of taxes and expenditures, and partly owing to excessive See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation during the year 1906 and to unfavourable financial conditions abroad . To See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float domestic loans became a hopeless task, and thus one of the three sources of extraordinary revenue ceased to be available . There remained no alternative but to modify the programme, and this was accomplished by extending the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original period of years so as correspondingly to reduce the annual outlays . The nation, however, as represented by its leading men of affairs, clamoured for still more drastic See also:

• MEASURES

measures, and it became evident that the government must study See also:

• RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchemen.t, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short)

retrenchment, not expansion, eschewing above all things any increase of the country's indebtedness . A change of See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry took place, and the new See also:

• CABINET

cabinet drafted a programme on five bases: first, that all expenditures should be brought within the margin of actual visible revenue, loans being wholly abstained from ; secondly, that the estimates should not include any anticipated surpluses of yearly revenue; thirdly, that appropriations of at least 50,000,000 yen should be annually set aside to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a sinking fund, the whole of the foreign debt being thus extinguished in 27 years; fourthly, that the state railways should be placed in a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate account, all their profits being devoted to extensions and See also:

• REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again)

repairs; and fifthly, that the period for completing the post bellum programme should be extended from 6 years to rt . This scheme had the effect of restoring confidence in the soundness of the national finances . National Debt.—When the fiefs were surrendered to the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign at the beginning of the Meiji era, it was decided to provide for the feudal nobles and the samurai by the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of lump sums in See also:

• COMMUTATION (from Lat. commutare, to change)

commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest on which should constitute a source of income .

The result of this trans-action was that bonds having a total See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face value of 191,500,000 yen were issued, and ready-See also:

• MONEY

money payments were made aggregating 21,250,000 yen.' This was the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Japan's national debt . Indeed, these public bonds may be said to have represented the bulk of the state's liabilities during the first 25 years of the Meiji period . The government had also to take over the debts of the fiefs, amounting to 41,000,000 yen, of which 21,500,000 yen were paid with interest-bearing bonds, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder with ready money . If to the above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating 16,500,000 yen (completely repaid by the year 1897) ; a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of 15,000,000 yen incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877, loans of 33,000,000 yen for public works, 13,000,000 yen for naval construction, and 14,500,000 yen 2 in connexion with the fiat currency, we have a total of 305,000,000 yen, being the whole national debt of Japan during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration . The second See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch See also:

• DATES

dates from the war with China in 1894–95 . The direct expenditures on account of the war aggregated 200,000,000 The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what may be called the disestablishment of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . There were 29,805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and their estates aggregated 354,481 acres, together with 11 million bushels of See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice (representing 2,500,000 yen) . The government resumed See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state of a little less than 2,500,000 yen, paid out in See also:

• PENSIONS

pensions spread over a period of fourteen years . The measure sounds like wholesale See also:

• CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

confiscation . But some extenuation is found in the fact that the temples and shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which, being derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity on the maintenance of See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism . 2 This sum represents interest-bearing bonds issued in See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange for fiat notes, with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of reducing the See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the latter . It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value .

yen, of which 135,000,000 yen were added to the national debt, the remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue, with a See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity received from China, and with voluntary contributions from patriotic subjects . As the immediate sequel of the war, the government elaborated a large programme of armaments and public works . The expenditure for these unproductive purposes, as well as for See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast fortifications, See also:

• DOCKYARDS

dockyards, and so on, came to 314,000,000 yen, and the total of the productive expenditures included in the programme was 190,000,000 yen—namely, 120 millions for railways, telegraphs and telephones; 20 millions for riparian improvements; 20 millions in aid of industrial and agricultural See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks and so forth—the whole programme thus involving an outlay of 504,000,000 yen . To meet this large figure, the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other assets, furnished 300 millions; and it was decided that the remaining 204 millions should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be carried completely into operation—with trifling exceptions—by the year 1905 . In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain money at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home without paying a high rate of interest . The government, therefore, had recourse to the See also:

• LONDON

London market in 1899, raising a loan of £to,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo bonds at 90 . In 1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further immediate recourse to foreign borrowing . According to her financiers' forecast at that time, her national indebtedness would reach its maximum, namely, 575,000,000 yen, in the year 1903, and would thenceforward diminish steadily . All Japan's domestic loans were by that time placed on a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform basis . They carried 5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years without redemption, and were then to be redeemed within 5o years at latest . The See also:

• TREASURY

treasury had power to expedite the operation of redemption according to financial convenience, but the sum expended on See also:

• AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, and mortem, to death)

amortization each year must receive the previous consent of the diet . Within the limit of that sum redemption was effected either by purchasing the stock of the loans in the open market or by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing lots to determine the bonds to be paid off .

During the first two periods (1867 to 1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion, consolidation, &c., and to the various requirements of the state's progress, twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were issued; they aggregated 673,215,500 yen; 269,042,198 yen of that total had been paid off at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1897, and the remainder was to be redeemed by 1946, according to these programmes . But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia, and the enormous resulting outlays caused a See also:

• SIGNAL

signal change in the financial situation . Before See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was restored in the autumn of 1905, Japan had been obliged to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow 405,000,000 yen at home and 1,054,000,000 abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a total debt of 2,276,000,000 yen, of which aggregate her domestic indebtedness stood for 1,11o,000,000 and her foreign borrowings amounted to 1,166,000,000 . This meant that her debt had grown from 561,000,000 yen in 1904 to 2,276,000,000 yen" in 1908; or from 11.3 yen to 43.8 yen per See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the population . Further, out of the See also:

• GRAND

grand total, the sum actually spent on account of war and armaments represented 1,357,000,000 yen . The debt carried interest varying from 4 to 5% . It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grew by 1,700,000,000 yen, in See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, owing to the war with Russia . This added See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation the government resolved to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge within the space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to approve the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a national debt consolidation fund, which should be kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue and expenditure, and specially applied to payment of interest and redemption of principal . The amount of this fund was never to fall below tto,000,000 yen annually . Immediately after the war, the diet approved a cabinet proposal for the nationalization of 17 private railways, at a cost of 500,000,000 yen, and this brought the state's debts to 2,776,000,000 yen in all . The See also:

• PEOPLE

people becoming impatient of this large burden, a scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for appropriating a sum of at least 50,000,000 yen annually to the purpose of redemption . See also:

• LOCAL

Local Finance.—Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy in matters of finance was fully established .

Under this system the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year of each quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-1890 were as follow: Total Expenditure Year . (millions of yen) . 1889-1890 22 1893–1894 52 1898–1899 97 1903–1904 2 158 1907–1908 167 " In this is included a sum of 110,000,000 yen distributed in the form of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy by way of See also:

• REWARD

reward for their services during the war of 1904–5 . s When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas the expenditures totalled 158,000,000 yen in 1903–1904, they See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to 122,000,000 and 126,000,000 in 1904–1905 and 1905–1906 respectively . Thereafter however, they expanded once more . In the same years the total indebtedness of the corporations was :—Debts Year . (millions of yen) . 189o 1894 10 1899 32 1904 65 1907 89' The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans were applied are as follow: Millions of yen . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education 5 Sanitation 12 See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries 13 Public works 52 Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted indebtedness . The endorsement of the local See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly must be secured; redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue and be completed within 30 years; and, except in the case of very small loans, the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of home affairs must be obtained . See also:

• WEALTH

Wealth of Japan.—With reference to the wealth of Japan, there is no See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census . So far as can be estimated from See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics for the year 1904–1905, the wealth of Japan proper, excluding See also:

• FORMOSA
• FORMOSA (called Taiwan by the Chinese, and following them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in 1895)

Formosa, See also:

• SAKHALIN, or SAGHALIEN

Sakhalin and some rights in See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria, amounts to about 19,896,000,000 yen, the items of which are as follow: Yen (to yen =£1) .

Lands 12,301,000,000 Buildings 2,331,000,000 See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

Furniture and fittings 1,o8o,00o,000 Live stock 109,000,000 Railways, telegraphs and telephones . 707,000,000 See also:

• SHIPPING

Shipping . 376,000,000 Merchandise 873,000,000 Specie and See also:

• BULLION

bullion 310,000,000 See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

Miscellaneous 1,809,000,000 Grand total . . . . 19,896,000,000 Education.—T here is no See also:

• ROOM

room to doubt that the literature and learning of China and See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea were transported to Japan in very See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times, but tradition is the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole authority See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early for current statements that in the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a Education . Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of Japan and another learned See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man from the same country introduced the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature . About the end of the 6th century the Japanese court began to send civilians and religionists direct to China, there to study Confucianism and See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, and among these travellers there were some who passed as much as 25 or 30 years beyond the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . The knowledge acquired by these students was crystallized into a See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• LAWS

laws and ordinances based on the administrative and legal systems of the Sui See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty in China, and in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been established by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Tenchi, followed some 50 years later by the first university . See also:

• NARA

Nara was the site of the latter, and the subjects of study were See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, See also:

• HISTORY

history and See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics . Not until 794, the date of the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer of the capital to See also:

• KIOTO (Kyoto)

Kioto, however, is there any See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of educational organization on a considerable scale . A university was then opened in the capital, with affiliated colleges; and local See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools were built and endowed by See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble families, to whose scions admittance was restricted, but for general education one institution only appears to have been provided . In this Kioto university the curriculum included the Chinese See also:

• CLASSICS

classics, calligraphy, history, law, See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette, See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic and See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition; while in the affiliated colleges special subjects were taught, as See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, herbalism, See also:

• ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to prick)

acupuncture, shampooing, See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination, the See also:

• ALMANAC

almanac and See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages .

See also:

• ADMISSION

Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the students aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age; the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty included professors and teachers, who were known by the same titles (hakase and shi) as those applied to their successors to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; and the government supplied See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and clothing as well as books . The See also:

• FAMILY

family schools numbered five, and their patrons were the Wage, the Fujiwara, the Tachibana (one school each) and the Minamoto (two) . At the one institution—opened in 828—where youths in general might receive instruction, the course ' This includes 224 millions of loans raised abroad . embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of Buddhism and Confucianism . The above re srospect suggests that Japan, in those early days, borrowed her educational system and its subjects of Comhina- study entirely from China . But closer See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny shows tion of that the national See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor was carefully preserved . Native and The ethics of administration required a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination Foreign of two elements, wakon, or the soul of Japan, and See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Element . kwansai, or the ability of China; so that, while adopt- See also:

• ING

ing from Confucianism the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of filial piety, the Japanese grafted on it a spirit of unswerving See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty and patriotism; and while accepting See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha's teaching as to three states of existence, they supplemented it by a belief that in the See also:

• LIFE

life beyond the See also:

• GRAVE

grave the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man . See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic importance attached to proficiency in See also:

• LITERARY

literary composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic script, endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely delicate in sense . To be able to compose and indite graceful couplets constituted a See also:

• PASSPORT

passport to high See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office as well as to the favour of great ladies, for See also:

• WOMEN

women vied with men in this accomplishment . The early years of the 1th century saw, grouped about the empress Aki, a See also:

• GALAXY

galaxy of female authors whose writings are still accounted their country's classics—Murasaki no Shikibu, Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights . To the first two Japan owes the Genji monogatari and the Eiga monogalari, respectively, and from the Imperial court of those remote ages she inherited admirable See also:

• MODELS

models of See also:

• PAINTING

painting, calligraphy, See also:

• POETRY

poetry, See also:

• MUSIC

music, See also:

• SONG

song and See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance .

But it is to be observed that all this refinement was limited virtually to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first See also:

• OBJECT

object of education in that era was to See also:

• FIT

fit men for office and for society . Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were rapidly growing to maturity numerous powerful military mag-6dncation nates who despised every form of learning that did in the not contribute to See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial excellence . An illiterate era Middle ensued which reached its See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax with the establish- Ages. went of feudalism at the close of the 12th century . It is recorded that, about that time, only one man out of a force of five thousand could decipher an Imperial See also:

• MANDATE (Mandatum)

mandate addressed to them . Kamakura, then the seat of feudal government, was at first distinguished for See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of all intellectual training, but subsequently the course of See also:

• POLITICAL

political events brought thither from Kioto a number of court nobles whose erudition and refinement acted as a potent See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven . Buddhism, too, had been from the outset a strong educating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . Under its auspices the first great public library was established (1270) at the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple Shomyo-ji in Kanazawa . It is said to have contained practically all the Chinese and Japanese books then existing, and they were open for perusal by every class of reader . To Buddhist priests, also, Japan owed during many years all the machinery she possessed for popular education . They organized schools at the temples scattered about in almost every part of the empire, and at these tera-koya, as they were called, lessons in ethics, calligraphy, See also:

• READING

reading and etiquette were given to the sons of samurai and even to youths of the mercantile and manufacturing classes . When, at the beginning of the 17th century, administrative supremacy fell into the hands of the See also:

• TOKUGAWA

Tokugawa, the illustrious Education founder of that dynasty of shoguns, Iyeyasu, in the pre- showed himself an See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest See also:

• PROMOTER

promoter of erudition . MeliiEra .

He employed a number of priests to make copies of Chinese and Japanese books; he patronized men of learning and he endowed schools . It does not appear to have occurred to him, however, that the spread of knowledge was hampered by a restriction which, emanating originally from the Imperial court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the Buddhist priesthood to become a public teacher . To his fifth successor Tsunayoshi (168o-1709) was reserved the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of abolishing this See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto . Tsunayoshi, whatever his faults, was profoundly attached to literature . By his command a See also:

• POCKET

pocket edition of the Chinese classics was prepared, and the example he himself setin reading and expounding rare books to audiences of feudatories and their vassals produced something like a See also:

• MANIA

mania for erudition, so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers and founding schools . The eighth See also:

• SHOGUN (Japanese for " generalissimo ")

shogun, Yoshimune (1716-1749), was an even more enlightened ruler . He caused a See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography to be compiled and an astronomical See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory to be constructed; he revoked the veto on the study of foreign books; he conceived and carried out the idea of imparting moral education through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of calligraphy by preparing ethical primers whose precepts were embodied in the head-lines of copy-books, and he encouraged private schools . Iyenari (1787-1838), the See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh shogun, and his immediate successor, Iyeyoshi (1838-1853), patronized learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of the latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of True Words, of Great Learning, of Lesser Learning, of Female Ethics and of Women's Filial Piety . Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed steadily throughout the Tokugawa era . From the days of Tsunayoshi the number of See also:

• FIEF

fief schools steadily increased, and as students were admitted See also:

• FREE

free of all charges, a duty of grateful fealty as well as the impulse of interfief competition See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew thither the sons of all samurai . Ultimately the number of such schools See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to over 240, and being supported entirely at the expense of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour to the spirit of the era . From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day scholars, being thereafter admitted as boarders, and twice a year See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations were held in the presence of high officials of the fief .

There were also several private schools where the curriculum consisted chiefly of moral See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, and there were many temple schools, where ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette and, sometimes, commercial matters were taught . A prominent feature of the system was the See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of reverential See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection uniting teacher and student . Before entering school a boy was conducted by his See also:

• FATHER

father or See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder See also:

• BROTHER

brother to the home of his future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher, pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose . Thus the teacher came to be regarded as a See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent, and the veneration paid to him was embodied in a See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept: " Let not a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil tread within three feet of his teacher's See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow." In the case of the temple schools the priestly instructor had full cognisance of each student's domestic circumstances and was guided by that know-ledge in shaping the course of instruction . The universally underlying principle was, " serve the country and be diligent in your respective avocations." Sons of samurai were trained in military arts, and on attaining proficiency many of them travelled about the country, inuring their bodies to every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of hardship and challenging all experts of local fame . Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion pre-vented for a long time all See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the stores of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European know-ledge . Not until the beginning of the 18th century did any authorized account of the great See also:

• WORLD

world of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West pass into the hands of the people . A celebrated See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar (Arai Hakuseki) then compiled two works—Seiyo kibun (See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Record of Occidental Hearsay), and Sairan igen (Renderings of Foreign Languages)—which embodied much See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, obtained from Dutch sources, about See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, its conditions and its customs . But of course the light thus furnished had very restricted influence . It was not extinguished, however . Thenceforth men's interest centred more and more on the astronomical, See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical and medical sciences of the West, though such subjects were not included in academical studies until the renewal of foreign intercourse in See also:

• MODERN

modern times . Then (1857), almost immediately, the nation turned to Western learning, as it had turned to Chinese thirteen centuries earlier .

The Tokugawa government established in Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for studying foreign books), where Occidental languages were learned and Occidental works translated . Simultaneously a school for acquiring foreign medical See also:

• ART

art (Seiyo igaku-sho) was opened, and, a little later (1862), the Kaisei-jo (place of liberal culture), a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college for studying European sciences, was added to the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of new institutions . Thus the See also:

• EVE

eve of the Restoration saw the Japanese people already appreciative of the stores of learning rendered accessible to them by contact with the Occident . Commercial education was comparatively neglected in the schools . Sons of merchants occasionally attended the tera-koya, commercial but the instruction they received there had seldom Education in any bearing upon the conduct of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . Mercan-Tokugawa See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile knowledge had to be acquired by a system of Times. See also:

• APPRENTICESHIP (from Fr. apprendre, to learn)

apprenticeship . A boy of 9 or 10 was apprenticed for a period of 8 or 9 years to a See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant, who undertook to support him and See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach him a trade . Generally this See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young apprentice could not even read or write . He passed through all the stages of See also:

• SHOP

shop See also:

• MENIAL

menial, errand boy, petty clerk, salesman and See also:

• SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864)

senior clerk, and in the evenings he received instruction from a teacher, who used for textbooks the See also:

• MANUAL

manual of See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing (Shosoku orai) and the manual of commerce (Shobsi orai) . The latter contained much useful information, and a youth thoroughly versed in its contents was competent to discharge responsible duties . When an apprentice, having attained the position of senior clerk, had given See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical ability, he was often assisted by his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master to start business independently, but under the same See also:

• FIRM

firm-name, for which purpose a sum of capital was given to him or a section of his master's customers were assigned . When the government of the Restoration came into power, the emperor solemnly announced that the administration should be Education conducted on the principle of employing men of capa-In modern See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city wherever they could be found .

This amounted Japan. to a See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration that in choosing officials scholastic acquirements would thenceforth take See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence of the claims of See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth, and thus unprecedented importance was seen to attach to education . But so long as the feudal system survived, even in part, no general scheme of education could be thoroughly enforced, and thus it was not until the conversion of the fiefs into prefectures in 1871 that the government saw itself in a position to take drastic steps . A See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission of investigation was sent to Europe and See also:

• AMERICA

America, and on its return a very elaborate and extensive See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up in accordance with See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French models, which the commissioners had found conspicuously See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and symmetrical . This plan subsequently underwent great modifications . It will be sufficient to say that in See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the free education hitherto provided by the feudatories in their various fiefs, the government of the restoration resolved not only that the state should henceforth See also:

• SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter, Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown)

shoulder the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main part of this burden, but also that the benefits of the system should be extended equally to all classes of the population, and that the attendance at See also:

• PRIMARY

primary schools should be compulsory . At the outset the sum to be paid by the treasury was fixed at 2,000,000 yen, that having been approximately the expenditure incurred by the feudatories . But the financial arrangements suffered many changes from time to time, and finally, in 1877, the cost of maintaining the schools became a See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge on the local taxes, the central treasury granting only sums in aid . Every See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, on attaining the age of six, must attend a See also:

• COMMON

common elementary school, where, during a six-years' course, instruction is given in morals, reading, arithmetic, the rudiments of technical See also:

• WORK

work, gymnastics and poetry . Year by year the attendance at these schools has increased . Thus, whereas in the year 1900, only 81.67 % of the school-age See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of both sexes received the prescribed elementary instruction, the figure in 1905 was 94'93% . The See also:

• DESIRE

desire for instruction used to be keener among boys than among girls, as was natural in view of the difference of inducement; but ultimately this discrepancy disappeared almost completely . Thus, whereas the percentage of girls attending school was 75.90 in 1900, it rose to 91.46 in 1905, and the corresponding figures for boys were 90.55 and 97.10 respectively .

The tuition See also:

• FEE

fee paid at a common elementary school in the rural districts must not exceed 5s. yearly, and in the urban districts, 1os.; but in practice it is much smaller, for these elementary schools form part of the communal system, and such portion of their expenses as is not covered by tuition fees, income from school See also:

• PROPERTY

property and miscellaneous sources, must be defrayed out of the proceeds of local taxation . In 1909 there were 18,160 common elementary schools, and also 9105 schools classed as elementary but having sections where, subsequently to the completion of the See also:

• REGULAR

regular curriculum, a special supplementary course of study might be pursued in See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, commerce or See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry (See also:

• NEEDLE (O. Eng. ncedl; the word appears in various forms in Teutonic languages, Ger. Nadel, Dutch naal, the root being ne-, to sew, cf. Ger. nahen, and probably Lat. nere, to spin, Gr. vi)ats, spinning)

needle-work in the case of girls) . The time devoted to these special courses is two, three or four years, according to the degreeof proficiency contemplated, and the maximum fees are 15d. per See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month in urban districts and one-See also:

• HALF

half of that amount in rural districts . There are also 294 kindergartens, with an attendance of 26,000 infants, whose parents pay 3d. per month on the See also:

• AVERAGE

average for each child . In general the kindergartens are connected with elementary schools or with normal schools . If a child, after See also:

• GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE)

graduation at a common elementary school, desires to extend its education, it passes into a common middle school, where training is given for practical pursuits or for admission to higher educational institutions . The ordinary curriculum at .a common middle school includes moral philosophy, See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, history, geography, mathematics, natural history, natural philosophy, See also:

• CHEMISTRY
• CHEMISTRY (formerly "chymistry"; Gr. xvµela; for derivation see ALCHEMY)

chemistry, drawing and the Japanese language . Five years are required to See also:

• GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduale, to admit to an academical degree, gradus)

graduate, and from the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth year the student may take up a special technical course as well as the main course; or, in accordance with local requirements, technical subjects may be taught conjointly with the regular curriculum throughout the whole time . The law provides that there must be at least one common middle school in each prefecture . The actual number in 1909 was 216 . Great inducements attract attendance at a common middle school . Not only does the graduation certificate carry considerable weight as a general qualification, but it also entitles a young man to volunteer for one year's service with the See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours, thus escaping one of the two years he would have to serve as an ordinary conscript .

The graduate of a common middle school can claim admittance, without examination, to a high school, where he spends three years preparing to pass to a university, or four years studying a special subject, as law, See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering or medicine . By following the course in a high school, a youth obtains exemption from See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription until the age of 28, when one year as a volunteer will free him from all service with the colours . A high-school certificate of graduation entitles its holder to enter a university without examination, and qualifies him for all public posts . For girls also high schools are provided, the object being to give a general education of higher See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard . Candidates for admission must be over 12 years of age, and must have completed the second-year course of a higher elementary school . The regular course of study requires 4 years, and supplementary courses as well as special art courses may be taken . In addition to the schools already enumerated, which may be said to constitute the machinery of general education, there are special schools, generally private, and technical schools (including a few private), where instruction is given in medicine and See also:

• SURGERY
• SURGERY (Fr. chirurgie, from Gr. Xetpoupyfa, i.e. hand-work)

surgery, agriculture, commerce, See also:

• MECHANICS

mechanics, applied chemistry, See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, See also:

• ELECTRICAL
• ELECTRICAL (or ELECTROSTATIC) MACHINE

electrical engineering, art (pictorial and applied), veterinary See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, sericulture and various other branches of industry . There are also apprentices' schools, classed under the heading of elementary, where a course of not less than six months, and not more than four years, may be taken in See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing and See also:

• WEAVING

weaving, See also:

• EMBROIDERY (M.E. embrouderie, from O. Fr. embroder, Mod. Fr. broder)

embroidery, the making of artificial See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, tobacco manufacture, sericulture, reeling See also:

• SILK

silk, pottery, See also:

• LACQUER, or LACICER

lacquer, woodwork, See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal-work or See also:

• BREWING

brewing . There are also schools—nearly all supported by private enterprise—for the See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind and the dumb . Normal schools are maintained for the purpose of training teachers, a class of persons not plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an exceptionally See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low scale of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding £6o and often falling as low as £15 . There are two Imperial See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities, one in See also:

• TOKYO (or TOKIO, formerly called Yedo)

Tokyo and one in Kioto . In 1909 the former had about 220 professors and instructors and 288o students .

Its colleges number six: law, medicine, engineering, literature, science and agriculture . It has a university See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall where post-graduate courses are studied, and it publishes a quarterly See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

journal giving accounts of scientific researches, which indicate not only large erudition, but also original See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent . The university of Kioto is a comparatively new institution and has not given any signs of great vitality . In 1909 its colleges numbered four: law, medicine, literature and science; its faculty consisted of about 6o professors with 7o assistants, and its students aggregated about 1100 . Except in the cases specially indicated, all the figures given above are See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of private educational institutions . The system pursued by the state does not tend to encourage private education, for unless a private school brings its curriculum into exact See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with that prescribed for public institutions of corresponding grade, its students are denied the valuable See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of partial exemption from conscription, as well as other advantages attaching to state recognition . Thus the quality of the instruction being nominally the same, the rate of fees must also be similar, and no margin offers to tempt private enterprise . Public education in Japan is strictly See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular: no religious teaching of any kind is permitted in the schools . There are about 100 See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries . Progress is marked in this See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, the rate of growth having been from 43 to 100 in the five-year period ended 1905 . The largest library is the Imperial, in Tokyo . It had about half a million volumes in 1909, and the daily average of visitors was about 430 .

Apart from the universities, the public educational institutions in Japan involve an annual expenditure of 31 millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling, out of which total a little more than half a million is met by students' fees; 21 millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is defrayed from various sources, the central government contributing only some £28,000 . It is estimated that public school property—in land, buildings, books, furniture, &c., aggregates II millions sterling . The See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of Japan is known by the name of Shinto, which signifies " the divine way," but the Japanese shtnto, maintain that this See also:

• TERM

term is of comparatively modern application . The term Shinto being obviously of Chinese origin, cannot have been used in Japan before she became acquainted with the Chinese language . Now Buddhism did not reach Japan until the 6th century, and a knowledge of the Chinese language had preceded it by only a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years . It is therefore reasonable to conclude that the primitive religion of Japan had no name, and that it did not begin to be called Shinto until Buddhism had entered the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . The two See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds remained distinct, though not implacably antagonistic, until the beginning of the 9th century, when they were welded together into a system of doctrine to which the name Ryobu-Shinto (dual Shint(i) was given . In this new creed the Shinto deities were regarded as avatars of Buddhist divinities, and thus it may be said that Shinto was absorbed into Buddhism . Probably that would have been the See also:

• FATE

fate of the indigenous creed in any circumstances, for a religion without a theory as to a future state and without any See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of moral duties could scarcely See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope to survive contact with a faith so well equipped as Buddhism in these respects . But Shinto, though absorbed, was not obliterated . Its beliefs survived; its shrines survived; its festivals survived, and something of its See also:

• RITES

rites survived also . Shinto, indeed, may be said to be entwined about the roots of Japan's national existence .

Its scripture—as the Kojiki must be considered—resembles the See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible in that both begin with the See also:

• COSMOGONY (from Gr. K6Qµos, world and yiyvevGay to be born)

cosmogony . But it represents the gods as peopling the newly created See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth with their own offspring instead of with human beings expressly made for the purpose . The actual work of creation was done by a male deity, Izanagi, and a female deity, Izanami . From the right See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye of the former was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born Amaterasu, who became goddess of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun; from his See also:

• LEFT

left eye, the See also:

• GOD

god of the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon; and from his See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, a See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• LUCIFER (d. 370/1)
• LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. 4scwo'4 bpos, " light-bearer ")

Lucifer . The See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of the sun goddess was the first sovereign of Japan, and his descendants have ruled the land in unbroken succession ever since, the 121st being on the See also:

• THRONE

throne in 1909 . Thus it is to Amaterasu (the See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven-See also:

• ILLUMINATING

illuminating goddess) that the Japanese pay reverence above all other deities, and it is to her See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine at Ise that pilgrims chiefly See also:

• FLOCK

flock . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of creation, as related in the Kojiki, is obviously based on a belief that force is indestructible, and that every exercise of it is productive of some permanent result . Thus by the motions of the creative spirit there See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring into existence all the elements that go to make up the universe, and these, being of divine origin, are worshipped and propitiated . Their number becomes immense when we add the deified ghosts of ancestors who were descended from the gods and whose names are associated with great deeds . These ancestors are often regarded as the tutelary deities of districts, where they receive special See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage and where shrines are erected to them . The method of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship consists in making offerings and in the See also:

• RECITAL (from Lat. recitare, to read out, particularly of a public document)

recital. of rituals (norito) . Twenty-seven of these rituals were reduced to writing and em-bodied in a work called Engishiki (927) .

Couched in See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique language, these liturgies are designed for the See also:

• DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicare, to proclaim, to announce)

dedication of shrines, for propitiating evil, for entreating blessings on the See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest, for See also:

• PURIFICATION

purification, for obtaining See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security, for bespeaking See also:

• PROTECTION

protection during a See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey, and so forth . Nowhere is any reference found to a future state of reward or See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment, to deliverance from evil, to assistance in the path of virtue . One ceremonial only is designed to avert the consequences of See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin or See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime; namely, the rite of purification, which, by washing with See also:

• WATER

water and by the See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice of valuables, removes the pollution resulting from all wrong-doing . Originally performed on behalf of individuals, this o-barai ultimately came to be a semi-annual ceremony for sweeping away the sins of all the people . Shinto is thus a mixture of ancestor-worship and of nature-worship without any explicit code of morals . It regards human beings as virtuous by nature; assumes that each man's See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience is his best See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide; and while believing in a continued existence beyond the grave, entertains no theory as to its pleasures or pains . Those that pass away become disembodied See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits, inhabiting the world of darkness (yomi-no-yo) and possessing power to bring sorrow or joy into the lives of their survivors, on which account they are worshipped and propitiated . Purity and simplicity being essential characteristics of the cult, its shrines are built of See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, absolutely without decorative features of any kind, and fashioned as were the original huts of the first Japanese settlers . There are no graven images—a fact attributed by some critics to See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the glyptic art on the part of the original worshippers—but there is an See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem of the deity, which generally takes the form of a See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword, a See also:

• MIRROR (through O. Fr. mirour, mod. miroir, from a sup-posed Late Lat. miratorium, from mirari, to admire)

mirror or a so-called See also:

• JEWEL, JOHN (1522-1571)

jewel, these being the insignia handed by the sun goddess to her grandson, the first ruler of Japan . This emblem is not exposed to public view: it is enveloped in silk and See also:

• BROCADE

brocade and enclosed in a See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box at the back of the shrine . The mirror sometimes prominent is a Buddhist innovation and has nothing to do with the true emblem of the creed . From the 9th century, when Buddhism absorbed Shinto, the two grew together so intimately that their differentiation seemed hopeless .

But in the middle of the 17th century a strong revival of the indigenous faith was effected by the efforts of a See also:

• GROUP

group of illustrious scholars and politicians, at whose head stood Mabuchi, Motoori and Hirata . These men applied themselves with great See also:

• DILIGENCE

diligence and acumen to reproduce the pure Shinto of the Kojiki and to restore it to its old place in the nation's reverence, their political purpose being to educate a spirit of revolt against the feudal system which deprived the emperor of administrative power . The principles thus revived became the basis of the restoration of 1867; Shinto rites and Shinto rituals were re-adopted, and Buddhism fell for a See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season into See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative disfavour, Shinto being regarded as the national religion . But Buddhism had twined its roots too deeply around the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the people to be thus easily torn up . It gradually recovered its old place, though not its old magnificence, for its disestablishment at the hands of the Meiji government robbed it of a large part of its revenues . Buddhism entered China at the beginning of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, but not until the 4th century did it obtain any strong footing . Thence, two centuries later (522), it reached Japan Buddhism. through Korea . The reception extended to it was not encouraging at first . Its images and its brilliant See also:

• APPURTENANCES (from late Lat. appertinentia, from appertinere, to appertain)

appurtenances might well deter a nation which had never seen an idol nor ever worshipped in a decorated temple . But the ethical teachings and the See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive doctrines of the foreign faith presented an attractive contrast to the colourless Shinto . After a struggle, not without bloodshed, Buddhism won its way . It owed much to the active patronage of Shotoku taishi, See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince-See also:

• REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule)

regent during the reign of the empress Suiko (593–62 I) .

At his command many new temples were built; the country was divided into dioceses under Buddhist prelates; priests were encouraged to teach the arts of road-making and See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge-building, and students were sent to China to investigate the mysteries of the faith at its supposed See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain-head . Between the middle of the 7th century and that of the 8th, six sects were introduced from China, all imperfect and all based on the teachings of the Hinayana system . Up to this time the propagandists of the creed had been chiefly Chinese and Korean teachers . But from the 8th century on-wards, when Kioto became the permanent capital of the empire, Japanese priests of lofty intelligence and profound piety began to repair to China and bring thence modified forms of the doctrines current there . It was thus that Dengyo daishi (c . 800) became the founder of the Tendai (heavenly tranquillity) See also:

• SECT

sect and Kobo daishi (774–834) the apostle of the Shingon (true word) . Other sects followed, until the country possessed six principal sects in all with See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-seven sub-sects . It must be remembered that Buddhism offers an almost limitless field' for See also:

• ECLECTICISM (from Gr. fr)

eclecticism . There is not in the world any literary See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the See also:

• MAHAYANA (" Great Vehicle ")

Mahayana . " The See also:

• CANON

canon is seven hundred times the amount of the New Testament . Hsuan Tsang's See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation of the Prajna paramita is twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible." It is natural that out of such a See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of doctrine different systems should be elaborated . The Buddhism that came to Japan See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to the days of Dengyo daishi was that of the Vaipulya school, which seems to have been accepted in its entirety .

But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by Dengyo, Iikaku and other See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-thinkers, though founded mainly on the Saddharma pundarika, were subjected to the See also:

• PROCESS

process of eclecticism which all foreign institutions undergo at Japanese hands . Dengyo studied it in the monastery of Tientai which " had been founded towards the close of the 6th century of our era on a lofty range of mountains in the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Chehkiang by the celebrated preacher Chikai " (See also:

• LLOYD, EDWARD (1845— )
• LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627–1717)
• LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813–1893)

Lloyd, " Developments of Japanese Buddhism," Transactions of the See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. xxii.), and carrying it to Japan he fitted its disciplinary and meditative methods to the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of the sects already existing there . This eclecticism was even more marked in the case of the Shingon (true word) doctrines, taught by DengyO's illustrious contemporary, Kobo daishi, who was regarded as the incarnation of Vairocana . He led his countrymen, by a path almost wholly his own, from the comparatively low See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform of Hinayana Buddhism, whose sole aim is individual salvation, to the Mahayana doctrine, which teaches its devotee to strive after perfect enlightenment, not for his own sake alone, but also that he may help his See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows and intercede for them . Then followed the Jodo (Pure Land) sect, introduced in 1153 by a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, Senku, who is remembered by later generations as Honen shonin . He taught salvation by faith ritualistically expressed . The virtue that saves comes, not from See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of and conformity to the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person and character of the saviour Amida, but from blind See also:

• TRUST

trust in his efforts and ceaseless repetition of pious formulae . It is really a religion of despair rather than of hope, and in that respect it reflects the profound sympathy awakened in the bosom of its teacher by the sorrows and sufferings of the troublous times in which he lived . A favourite pupil of Honen shonin was Shinran (1173-1262) . He founded the Jodo Shinshu (true sect of judo), commonly called simply Shinshu and sometimes Monto, which subsequently became the most influential of Japanese sects, with its splendid monasteries, the two Hongwana-ji in KiOto . The See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the doctrines of this sect and those of its predecessors were that the former " divested itself of all See also:

• META

meta-physics "; knew nothing of a philosophy of religion, dispensed with a multiplicity of acts of devotion and the keeping of many commandments; did not impose any vows of See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy or any renunciation of the world, and simply made faith in Amida the all in all . In modern days the Shinshu sect has been the most progressive of all Buddhist sects and has freely sent forth its promising priests to study in Europe and America .

Its devotees make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the followers of other sects . Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshu was the Zen sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai (1168), the See also:

• SOTO, FERDINANDO [FERNANDO, Or HERNANDO] DE (1496?—1542)

Soto (1223) and the Obaku (1650) . This is essentially a contemplative sect . Truth is reached by pure contemplation, and knowledge can be transmitted from heart to heart without the use of words . In that See also:

• SIMPLE

simple form the doctrine was accepted by the Rinzai believers . But the founders of the Soto branch—Shoyo taishi and Butsuji zenshi—added scholarship and re-See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search to contemplation, and taught that the " highest See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and the most perfect enlightenment are attained when all the elements of phenomenal existence are recognized as empty, vain and unreal." This creed played an important part in the development of See also:

• BUSHIDO (Japanese for " military-knight-ways ")

Bushido, and its priests have always been distinguished for erudition and indifference to worldly possessions . Last but not least important among Japanese sects of Buddhism is the Nichiren or Hokke, called after its founder, Nichiren (1222-1282) . It was based on the Saddharma pundarika, and it taught that there was only one true Buddha—the moon in theheavens—the other Buddhas being like the moon reflected in the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters, transient, shadowy reflections of the Buddha of truth . It is this being who is the source of all phenomenal existence, and in whom all phenomenal existence has its being . The imperfect Buddhism teaches a See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of cause and effect; true Buddhism teaches that the first See also:

• LINK

link in this chain of cause and effect is the Buddha of original enlightenment . When this point has been reached true wisdom has at length been attained . Thus the monotheistic faith of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was virtually reached in one God in whom all creatures " live, move and have their being." It will readily be conceived that these varied doctrines caused dissension and strife among the sects professing them .

Sectarian controversies and squabbles were nearly as prominent among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European Christians, but to the See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of Buddhism it has to be recorded that the stake and the See also:

• RACK

rack never found a place among its See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments of self-assertion . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, during the wars that devastated Japan from the 12th to the end of the 16th century, many of the monasteries became military camps, and the monks, wearing See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour and wielding glaives, fought in secular as well as religious causes . The story. of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told else-where (see § VIII . FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) . Their work suffered an interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, christlanity almost simultaneously with the conclusion of the In Modern See also:

• TREATIES

treaties, a small See also:

• BAND

band of See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic fathers entered Japan Japan. from the Riukiu islands, where they had carried on their ministrations since 1846 . They found that, in the See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of See also:

• NAGASAKI

Nagasaki, there were some small communities where Christian worship was still carried on . It would seem that these communities had not been subjected to any severe official scrutiny . But the arrival of the fathers revived the old question, and the native Christians, or such of them as refused to' apostatize, were removed from their homes and sent into banishment . This was the last example of religious intolerance in Japan . At the instance of the foreign representatives in Tokyo the exiles were set at See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty in 1873, and from that time complete freedom of conscience existed in fact, though it was not declared by law until the promulgation of the constitution in 1889 . In 1905 there were 6o,000 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholic converts in Japan forming 36o congregations, with 130 missionaries and 215 teachers, including 145 nuns . These were all European .

They were assisted by 32 Japanese priests, 52 Japanese nuns, 280 male catechists and 265 female catechists and nurses . Three seminaries for native priests existed, together with 58 schools and See also:

• ORPHAN

orphan-ages and two lepers' homes . The whole was presided over by an See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop and three bishops . The See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican Church was established in Japan in 1859 by two See also:

• AMERICAN

American clergymen who settled in Nagasaki, and now, in See also:

• CON

con-junction with the Episcopal Churches of America and See also:

• CANADA

Canada, it has See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions collectively designated Nihon Sei-Kokai . There are 6 bishops—2 American and 4 English—with about 6o foreign and 50 Japanese priests and deacons, besides many foreign See also:

• LAY

lay workers of both sexes and Japanese catechists and school teachers . The converts number 11,000 . The See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant missions include Presbyterian (Nihon Kirisuto Kyokai), Congregational (Kumi-ai), Methodist, Baptist and the Salvation Army (Kyusei-See also:

• GUN

gun) . The See also:

• PIONEER

pioneer Protestant See also:

• MISSION

mission was founded in 1859 by representatives of the American Presbyterian and Dutch Reformed Churches . To this mission belongs the credit of having published, in 188o, the first complete Japanese version of the New Testament, followed by the Old Testament in 1887 . The Presbyterians, representing 7 religious See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies, have over a hundred missionaries; 12,400 converts; a number of boarding schools for boys and girls and day schools . The Congregational churches are associated exclusively with the mission of the American See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board of commissioners for foreign missions . They have about 11,400 converts, and the largest Christian educational institution in Japan, namely, the DOshisha in Kioto .

The Methodists represent 6 American societies and i See also:

• CANADIAN

Canadian . They have 130 missionaries and ro,000 converts; boarding schools, day schools, and the most important Christian college in Tokyo, namely, the Awoyama Gaku-in . The See also:

• BAPTISTS

Baptists represent 4 American societies; have 6o missionaries, a theological See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary, an See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy for boys, boarding schools for girls, day schools and 3500 converts . The Salvation Army, which did not enter Japan until 1895, has organized 15 See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps, and publishes ten thousand copies of a fort-nightly See also:

• MAGAZINE

magazine, the War Cry (Toki no Koe) . Finally, the Society of See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

Friends, the American and London Religious See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

Tract Societies and the Young Men's Christian Association have a number of missions: It will be seen from the above that the missionaries in Japan, in the space of half a century (1858 to 1908), had won 110,000 converts, in round numbers . To these must be added the Orthodox See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian Church, which has a See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral in Tokyo, a See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff of about 40 Japanese priests and deacons and 27,000 converts, the whole presided over by a See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop . Thus the total number of converts becomes 137,000 . In spite of the numerous sects represented in Japan there has been virtually no sectarian strife, and it may be said of the Japanese converts that they concern themselves scarcely at all about the subtleties of See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

dogma which See also:

• DIVIDE

divide European Christianity . Their tendency is to consider only the practical aspects of the faith as a moral and ethical guide . They are disposed, also, to adapt the creed to their own requirements just as they adapted Buddhism, and this is a disposition which promises to grow . Foreign Intercourse in Early and See also:

• MEDIEVAL

Medieval Times.—There can be no doubt that commerce was carried on by Japan with China and Korea earlier that the 8th century of the Christian era . It would appear that from the very outset over-sea trade was regarded as a government monopoly .

Foreigners were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country provided that they submitted their baggage for official inspection and made no purchases of weapons of war, but all imported goods were bought in the first place by official appraisers who subsequently sold them to the people at arbitrarily fixed prices . Greater importance attached to the trade with China under the Ashikaga shoguns (14th, 15th and 16th centuries), who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost of inter-minable military operations caused by See also:

• CIVIL

civil disturbances . In this See also:

• DISTRESS

distress they turned to the neighbouring empire as a source from which money might be obtained . This idea seems to have been suggested to the shogun Takauji by a Buddhist priest, when he undertook the construction of the temple Tenryu-ji . Two ships laden with goods were fitted out, and it was decided that the enterprise should be repeated annually . Within a few years after this development of commercial relations between the two empires, an interruption occurred owing partly to the overthrow of the Yuen See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols by the Chinese Ming, and partly to the activity of Japanese pirates and adventurers who raided the coasts of China . The shogun Yoshimitsu (1368-1394), however, succeeded in restoring commercial intercourse, though in order to effect his object he consented that goods sent from Japan should See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the character of See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute and that he himself should receive See also:

• INVESTITURE (Late Lat. investitura)

investiture at the hands of the Chinese emperor's See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador . The See also:

• NANKING (" the southern capital ")

Nanking government granted a certain number of commercial passports, and these were given by the shogun to Ouchi, feudal chief of Cho-shu, which had long been the principal See also:

• PORT

port for trade with the neighbouring empire . Tribute goods formed only a small fraction of a See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel's See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo: the bulk consisted of articles which were delivered into the government's stores in China, payment being received in See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper See also:

• CASH

cash . It was from this transaction that the shogun derived a consider-able part of his profits, for the articles did not cost him anything originally, being either presents from the great temples and provincial See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors or compulsory contributions from the house of Ouchi . As for the gifts by the Chinese government and the goods shipped in China, they were arbitrarily distributed among the noble families in Japan at prices fixed by the shogun's See also:

• ASSESSOR (Lat. assessare, assidere, to sit by)

assessor . Thus, so far as the shogun was concerned, these enterprises could not fail to be lucrative .

They also brought large profits to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence of competition, the pro-ducts and manufactures of each country found ready See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale in the markets of the other . The articles found most suitable in China were swords, fans, screens, lacquer wares, copper and See also:

• AGATE

agate, and the goods brought back to Japan were brocade and other silk fabrics, ceramic productions, See also:

• JADE
• JADE, or JAHDE

jade and fragrant See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods . The Chinese seem to have had a just appreciation of the wonderful swords of japan . At first they were willing to pay the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of 12 guineas for a pair of See also:

• BLADES, WILLIAM (1824-1890)

blades, but by degrees, as the Japanese began to increase the supply, the price fell, and at the beginning of the 16th century all the See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy of the Japanese envoys was needed to obtain See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good figures for the large and constantly growing quantity of goods that they took over by way of supplement to the tribute . Buddhist priests generally enjoyed the distinction of being selected as envoys, for experience showed that their subtle reasoning invariably overcame the economical scruples of the Chinese authorities and secured a fine profit for their master, the shogun . In the middle of the16th century these tribute-bearing missions came to an end with the ruin of the Ouchi family and the overthrow of the Ashikaga shoguns, and they were never renewed . Japan's medieval commerce with Korea was less ceremonious than that with China . No passports had to be obtained from the Korean government . A trader was sufficiently With equipped when he carried a permit from the So Korea family, which held the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of Tsushima in fief . Fifty vessels were allowed to pass yearly from ports in Japan to the three Japanese settlements in Korea . Little is recorded about the nature of this trade, but it was rudely interrupted by the Japanese settlers, who, offended at some arbitrary See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure on the part of the local Korean authorities, took up arms (A.o . 1510) and at first signally routed the Koreans .

An army from See also:

• SEOUL (Han-yang)

Seoul turned the tables, and the Japanese were compelled to abandon the three settlements . Subsequently the shogun's government—which had not been concerned in the struggle—approached Korea with amicable proposals, and it was agreed that the ringleaders of the raiders should be decapitated and their heads sent to Seoul, Japan's compliance with this condition affording, perhaps, a measure of the value she attached to neighbourly friend:See also:

• HIP

hip . Thenceforth the number of vessels was limited to 25 annually and the settlements were abolished . Some years later, the Japanese again resorted to violent acts of self-assertion, and on this occasion, although the offenders were arrested by order of the shogun Yoshiharu, and handed over to Korea for punishment, the Seoul court persisted in declining to restore the system of settlements or to allow the trade to be resumed on its former basis . Fifty years afterwards the taiko's armies invaded Korea, overrunning it for seven years, and leaving, when they retired in 1598, a country so impoverished that it no longer offered any attraction to commercial enterprise from beyond the sea . The Portuguese discovered Japan by See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident in 1542 or 1543 —the exact date is uncertain . On a voyage to See also:

• MACAO (A-Ma-ngao, " Harbour of the goddess A-Ma "; Port. Macau)

Macao from See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam, a See also:

• JUNK

junk carrying three Portuguese was blown from with her course and fetched Tanegashima, a small Occidental island lying See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the province of Satsuma . Nations . The Japanese, always hospitable and inquisitive, welcomed the newcomers and showed special curiosity about the arquebuses carried by the Portuguese, See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire-arms being then a novelty in Japan and all weapons of war being in great See also:

• REQUEST, LETTERS OF

request . Conversation was impossible, of course, but, by tracing ideographs upon the See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, a Chinese member of the See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew succeeded in explaining the cause of the junk's arrival . She was then piloted to a more commodious See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour, and the Portuguese sold two arquebuses to the local feudatory, who immediately ordered his armourer to manufacture similar weapons . Very soon the See also:

• NEWS

news of the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery reached all the Portuguese settlements in the East, and at least seven expeditions were fitted out during the next few years to exploit this new market .

Their See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective points were all in the island of Kiushiu—the principal See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage where the See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama—ultimately converted into a tragedy—of Christian propagandism and European commercial intercourse was acted in the See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between 1542 and 1637 . It does not appear that the See also:

• JESUITS

Jesuits at Macao, See also:

• GOA

Goa or other centres of Portuguese influence in the East took immediate See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the discovery of Japan . The pioneer Arrive/of propagandist was See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• XAVIER, FRANCISCO DE (1506-1552)

Xavier, who landed at the Jesuits . Kagoshima on the 15th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1549 . During the interval of six (or seven) years that separated this event from the drifting of the junk to Tanegashima, the Portuguese had traded freely in the ports of Kiushiu, had visited Kioto, and had reported the Japanese capital to be a city of 96,000 houses, therefore larger than See also:

• LISBON (Lisboa)

Lisbon . Xavier would certainly have gone to Japan even though he had not been specially encouraged, for the reports of his countrymen depicted the Japanese as " very desirous of being instructed," and he longed to find a field more promising than that inhabited by " all these See also:

• INDIAN

Indian nations, barbarous, vicious and without inclination to virtue." There were, however, two special determinants . One was a request addressed by a feudatory, supposed to have been the chief of the Bungo fief, to the See also:

• VICEROY (from O. Fr. viceroy, mod. viceroi, i.e. Lat. vice, in place of, and roy or roi, king)

viceroy of the Indies at Goa; the other, an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal made in person by a Japanese named Yajiro, whom the fathers spoke of as Anjiro, and who subsequently attained celebrity under his baptismal name, See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul of the See also:

• HOLY

holy faith . No credible See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason is historically assigned for the action of the Japanese feudatory . Probably his curiosity had been excited by accounts which the Portuguese traders gave of the noble devotion of their country's missionaries, and being entirely without bigotry, as nearly all Japanese were at that epoch, he issued the invitation partly out of curiosity and partly from a sincere desire for progress . Anjiro's case was very different . Labouring under stress of repentant zeal, and fearful that his evil acts might See also:

• ENTAIL (from Fr. tailler, to cut; the old derivation from tales haeredes is now abandoned)

entail murderous consequences, he sought an See also:

• ASYLUM (from Gr. b.-, privative, arid earl, right'of seizure)
• ASYLUM, RIGHT OF (Fr. droit d'asile; Ger. Asylrecht)

asylum abroad, and was taken away in 1548 by a Portuguese vessel whose master advised him to repair to Malacca for the purpose of confessing to Xavier . This might well have seemed to the Jesuits a providential See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation, for Anjiro, already able to speak Portuguese, soon mastered it sufficiently to interpret for Xavier and his fellow-missionaries (without which aid they must have remained long helpless in the face of the immense difficulty of the Japanese language), and to this linguistic skill he added extraordinary gifts of intelligence and memory .

Xavier, with two Portuguese companions and Anjiro, were excellently received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and obtained permission to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief . This permit is not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy with the foreign creed . Commercial considerations alone were in question . A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

foster every source of wealth or strength, and as the newly opened trade with the See also:

• OUTER

outer world seemed full of See also:

• GOLDEN

golden promise, each feudatory was not less anxious to secure a monopoly of it in the 16th century than the Ashikaga shoguns had been in the 15th . The Satsuma daimyo was led to believe that the presence of the Jesuits in Kagoshima would certainly prelude the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of trading vessels . But within a few months one of the expected merchantmen sailed to See also:

• HIRADO

Hirado without touching at Kagoshima, and her example was followed by two others in the following year, so that the Satsuma chief saw himself flouted for the sake of a petty See also:

• RIVAL

rival, Matsudaira of Hirado . This fact could not fail to provoke his resentment . But there was another influence at work . Buddhism has always been a tolerant religion, eclectic rather than exclusive . Xavier, however, had all the bigoted intolerance of his time . The Buddhist priests in Kagoshima received him with See also:

• COURTESY (O. Fr. curtesie, later courtoisie)

courtesy and listened respectfully to the doctrines he expounded through the mouth of Anjiro . Xavier rejoined with a display of aggressive intolerance which shocked and alienated the Buddhists .

They represented to the Satsuma chief that peace and good order were inconsistent with such a display of militant propagandism, and he, already profoundly chagrined by his commercial disappointment, issued in 1550 an See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict making it a capital offence for any of his vassals to embrace Christianity . Xavier, or, more correctly speaking, Anjiro, had won 150 converts, who remained without molestation, but Xavier himself took ship for Hirado . There he was received with salvoes of See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery by the Portuguese merchantmen lying in the harbour and with marks of profound respect by the Portuguese traders, a display which induced the local chief to issue orders that courteous See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention should be paid to the teaching of the foreign missionaries . In ten days a hundred baptisms took place; another significant See also:

• INDEX

index of the See also:

• MOOD

mood of the Japanese in the early era of Occidental intercourse: the men in authority always showed a complaisant attitude towards Christianity where trade could be fostered by so doing, and wherever the men in authority showed such an attitude, considerable numbers of the lower orders embraced the foreign faith . Thus, in considering the commercial history of the era, the element of religion constantly thrusts itself into the foreground . Xavier next resolved to visit KiOto . The first See also:

• TOWN

town of impor-Phst visit tance he reached on the way was Yamaguchi, capital of Europeans of the Choshu fief, situated on the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SHORE

shore to !See also:

• ALTO (Ital. for " high ")

alto. of the Shimonoseki Strait . There the feudal chief, Ouchi, though sufficiently courteous and inquisitive, showed fi Yno special cordiality towards humble missionaries unconnected with commerce, and the work of proselytizing made no progress, so that Xavier and his See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion, See also:

• FERNANDEZ, ALVARO
• FERNANDEZ, DIEGO
• FERNANDEZ, JOHN (Joao, Joam)
• FERNANDEZ, JUAN (fl. c. 1570)
• FERNANDEZ, LUCAS

Fernandez, pushed on to KiOto . The time was See also:

• MID

mid-See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter; the two fathers suffered terrible privations during their journey of two months on See also:

• FOOT

foot, and on reaching Kioto they found a city which had been almost wholly reduced to ruins by internecine war . Necessarily they failed to obtain See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience of either emperor or shogun, at that time the most inaccessible potentates in the world, the Chinese " son of heaven " excepted, and nothing remained but See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street See also:

• PREACHING (Fr. preecher, from Lat. praedicare, to proclaim)

preaching, a See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange resource, seeing that Xavier, constitutionally a See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad linguist, had only a most rudimentary acquaintance with the profoundly difficult See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue in which he attempted to expound the mysteries of a novel creed . A fortnight sufficed to convince him that KiOto was unfruitful See also:

• SOIL

soil . He therefore returned to Yamaguchi .

But he had now learned a See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson . He saw that propagandism without See also:

• SCRIP

scrip or staff and without the countenance of those sitting in the seats of power would be futile in Japan . So he obtained from Hirado his canonicals, together with a See also:

• CLOCK

clock and other novel products of European skill, which, as well as See also:

• CREDENTIALS (lettres de creance)

credentials from the viceroy of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Malacca and the bishop of Goa, he presented to the Choshu chief . His See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer for permission to preach Christianity was now readily granted, and Ouchi issued a See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation announcing his approval of the introduction of the new religion and according perfect liberty to embrace it . Xavier and Fernandez now made many converts . They also gained the valuable knowledge that the road to success in Japan lay in associating themselves with over-sea commerce and its See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors, and in thus winning the co-operation of the feudal chiefs . Nearly ten years had now elapsed since the first Portuguese landed in Kagoshima, and during that time trade had gone on steadily and prosperously . No See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was made Christian to find markets in the main island: the Portuguese Propagandists. confined themselves to Kiushiu for two reasons: one, that having no knowledge of the coasts, they hesitated to See also:

• RISK

risk their ships and their lives in unsurveyed waters; the other, that whereas the main island, almost from end to end, was seething with internecine war, Kiushiu remained beyond the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of disturbance and enjoyed comparative tranquillity . At the time of Xavier's second sojourn in Yamaguchi, a Portuguese ship happened to be visiting Bungo, and at its master's See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion the great missionary proceeded thither, with the intention of returning temporarily to the Indies . At Bungo there was then ruling Otomo, second in power to only the Satsuma chief among the feudatories of Kiushiu . By him the Jesuit father was received with all honour . Xavier did not now neglect the lesson he had learned in Yamaguchi .

He repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court, escorted by nearly the whole of the Portuguese crew, gorgeously bedizened, carrying their arms and with See also:

• BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. Nobori-no-Sekku)

banners flying . Otomo, a young and ambitious ruler, was keenly anxious to attract foreign traders with their See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich cargoes and puissant weapons of war . Witnessing the reverence paid to Xavier by the Portuguese traders, he appreciated the importance of gaining the See also:

• GOODWILL

goodwill of the Jesuits, and accordingly not only granted them full freedom to teach and preach, but also enjoined upon his younger brother, who, in the sequel of a sudden See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion, had succeeded to the lordship of Yamaguchi, the advisability of extending protection to Torres and Fernandez, then sojourning there . After some four months' stay in Bungo, Xavier set See also:

• SAIL

sail for Goa in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1552 . See also:

• DEATH

Death overtook him in the last month of the same year . Xavier's departure from Japan marked the conclusion of the first epoch of Christian propagandism . His sojourn in Japan extended to 27 months . In that time he and his coadjutors won about 76o converts . In Satsuma more than a year's labour produced 150 believers . There Xavier had the assistance of Anjiro to expound his doctrines . No language lends itself with greater difficulty than Japanese to the discussion of theological questions . The terms necessary for such a purpose are not current among laymen, and only by special II study, which, it need scarcely be said, must be preluded by an accurate acquaintance with the tongue itself, can a man hope to become duly equipped for the task of exposition and dissertation .

It is open to grave doubt whether any foreigner has ever attained the requisite proficiency . Leaving Anjiro in Kagoshima to care for the converts made there, Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he baptized a hundred Japanese in a few days . Now we have it on the authority of Xavier himself that in this Hirado See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign " none of us knew Japanese." How then did they proceed ? "By reciting a semi-Japanese volume " (a translation made by Anjiro of a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise from Xavier's See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen) " and by delivering sermons, we brought several over to the Christian cult." Sermons preached in Portuguese or Latin to a Japanese audience on the island of Hirado in the year 1550 can scarcely have attracted intelligent interest . On his first visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier's means of access to the understanding of his hearers was confined to the rudimentary knowledge of Japanese which Fernandez had been able to acquire in 14 months, a period of study which, in modern times, with all the See also:

• AIDS

aids now procurable, would not suffice to carry a student beyond the margin of the colloquial . No converts were won . The people of Yamaguchi probably admired the splendid faith and devotion of these over-sea philosophers, but as for their doctrine, it was unintelligible . In KiOto the same experience was repeated, with an addition of much See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical hardship . But when the Jesuits returned to Yamaguchi in the early autumn of 1551, they baptized 500 persons, including several members of the military class . Still Fernandez with his broken Japanese was the only medium for communicating the profound doctrines of Christianity . It must be concluded that the teachings of the missionaries produced much less effect than the attitude of the local chieftain . Only two missionaries, Torres and Fernandez, remained in Japan after the departure of Xavier, but they were soon joined Second by three others .

These newcomers landed at Kago-Period of shima and found that, in spite of the official veto Christian against the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of Christianity, the feudal chief Props" had lost nothing of his desire to foster foreign trade . gandistn . Two years later, all the Jesuits in Japan were assembled in Bungo . Their only church stood there; and they had also built two hospitals . Local disturbances had compelled them to withdraw from-Yamaguchi, not, however, before their violent disputes with the Buddhist priests in that town had induced the feudatory to proscribe the foreign religion, as had previously been done in Kagoshima . From Funai, the chief town of Bungo, the Jesuits began in 1579 to send yearly reports to their Generals in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . These reports, known as the Annual Letters, comprise some of the most valuable information available about the conditions then existing in Japan . They describe a state of abject poverty among the lower orders; poverty so cruel that the destruction of children by their famishing parents was an everyday occurrence, and in some instances choice had to be made between See also:

• CANNIBALISM

cannibalism and See also:

• STARVATION

starvation . Such suffering becomes easily intelligible when the fact is recalled that Japan had been racked by civil war during more than 200 years, each feudal chief fighting for his own hand, to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save or to extend his territorial possessions . From these Annual Letters it is possible also to gather a tolerably clear idea of the course of events during the years immediately subsequent to Xavier's departure . There was no break in the continuity of the newly inaugurated foreign trade . Portuguese ships visited Hirado as well as Bungo, and in those days their masters and crews not only attended scrupulously to their religious duties, but also showed such profound respect for the missionaries that the Japanese received constant object lessons in the influence wielded over the traders by the Jesuits .

Thirty years later, this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a by-word in China . But in the early days of intercourse with Japan the crews of the merchant vessels seem to have preached Christianity by their exemplary conduct . Just as Xavier had been induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety of a ship-See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain for Christian ministrations, so in 1557 two of the fathers repaired to Hirado in obedience to the solicitations of Portuguese sailors . There the fathers, under the guidance of Vilela, sent See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers to See also:

• PARADE (Fr. parade, an adaptation from Ital. parada; cf. Span. parada, from Lat. parade, to prepare, equip, furnish)

parade the streets ringing bells and chaunting litanies; they organized bands of boys for the same purpose; they caused the converts, and even children, to flagellate themselves at a See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• CALVARY

Calvary, and they worked miracles, healing the sick by contact with scourges or with a booklet in which Xavier had written litanies and prayers . It may well be imagined that such doings attracted surprised attention in Japan . They were supplemented by even more striking practices . For a sub-feudatory of the Hirado chief, having been converted, showed his zeal by destroying Buddhist temples and throwing down the idols, thus inaugurating a campaign of violence destined to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the progress of Christianity throughout the greater part of its history in japan . There followed the overthrowing of a See also:

• CROSS

cross in the Christian See also:

• CEMETERY (Gr. Korrsnri7pwv, from Hoiµav, to sleep)

cemetery, the burning of a temple in the town of Hirado, and a street See also:

• RIOT (0. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology)

riot, the sequel being that the Jesuit fathers were compelled to return once more to Bungo . It is essential to follow all these events, for not otherwise can a clear understanding be reached as to the aspects under which Christianity presented itself originally to the Japanese . The Portuguese traders, reverent as was their demeanour towards Christianity, did not allow their commerce to be interrupted by vicissitudes of propagandism . They still repaired to Hirado, and rumours of the wealth-begetting effects of their presence having reached the neighbouring fief of Omura, its chief, Sumitada, made overtures to the Jesuits in Bungo, offering a port free from all dues for ten years, a large tract of land, a See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence for the missionaries and other privileges . The Jesuits hastened to take advantage of this proposal, and no sooner did the news reach Hirado than the feudatory of that island repented of having expelled the fathers and invited them to return .

But while they hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the feudal chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the missionaries, since trade went on without them . When this became known in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was received with extraordinary honours by the crew of the vessel, and at his instance she left the port, her master declaring that " he could not remain in a country where they maltreated those who professed the same religion as himself." Hirado remained a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent of three merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put in unless the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Christian See also:

• BAN

ban was removed, induced the feudal chief to receive the Jesuits. once more . This incident was paralleled a few years later in the island of See also:

• AMAKUSA

Amakusa, where a petty feudatory, in order to attract foreign trade, as the missionaries themselves frankly explain, embraced Christianity and ordered all his vassals to follow his example; but when no Portuguese ship appeared, he apostatized, required his subjects to revert to Buddhism and made the missionaries withdraw . In fact, the competition for the patronage of Portuguese traders was so keen that the Hirado feudatory attempted to See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn several of their vessels because they frequented the territorial waters of his neighbour and rival, Sumitada . The latter became a most stalwart Christian when his wish was gratified . He set himself to eradicate See also:

• IDOLATRY

idolatry throughout his fief with the strong See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, and his fierce intolerance provoked results which ended in the destruction of the Christian town at the newly opened free port . Sumitada, however, quickly reasserted his authority, and five years later (1567), he took a step which had far-reaching consequences, namely, the building of a church at Nagasaki, in order that Portuguese commerce might have a centre and the Christians an assured asylum . Nagasaki was then a little fishing See also:

• VILLAGE

village . In five years it grew to be a town of thirty thousand inhabitants, and Sumitada became one of the richest of the Kiushiu feudatories . When in 1573 successful conflicts with the neighbouring fiefs brought him an access of territory, he declared that he owed these victories to the influence of the Christian God, and shortly afterwards he publicly proclaimed banishment for all who would not accept the foreign faith . There were then no Jesuits by his See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, but immediately two hastened to join him, and " these, accompanied by a strong guard, but yet not without danger of their lives, went round causing the churches of the Gentiles, with their idols, to be thrown to the ground, while three Japanese Christians went preaching the law of God everywhere . Three of us who were in the neighbouring kingdoms all withdrew therefrom to work in this abundant harvest, and in the space of seven months twenty thousand persons were baptized, including the bonzes of about sixty monasteries, except a few who quitted the State." In Bungo, however, where the Jesuits were originally so well received, it is doubtful whether Christian propagandism would not have ended in failure but for an event which occurred in 1576, namely, the conversion of the chieftain's son, a youth of some 16 years .

Two years later Otomo himself came over to the Christian faith . He rendered inestimable aid, not merely within his own fief, but also by the influence he exercised on others . His intervention, supported by recourse to arms, obtained for the Jesuits a footing on the island of Amakusa, where one of the feudatories gave his vassals the choice of con-version or See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, and announced to the Buddhist priests that unless they accepted Christianity their property would be confiscated and they themselves banished . Nearly the whole population of the fief did violence to their conscience for the sake of their homes . Christianity was then becoming established in Kiushiu by methods similar to those of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam and the See also:

• INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry)

inquisition . Another notable See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration is furnished by the story of the Arima fief, adjoining that of Sumitada (Omura), where such resolute means had been adopted to force Christianity upon the vassals . Moreover, the heads of the two fiefs were brothers . Accordingly, at the time of Sumitada's very dramatic conversion, the Jesuits were invited to Arima and encouraged to form settlements at the ports of Kuchinotsu and Shimabara, which thenceforth began to be frequented by Portuguese merchantmen . The fief naturally became involved in the turmoil resulting from Sumitada's iconoclastic methods of propagandism; but, in 1576, the then ruling feudatory, influenced largely by the object lesson of Sumitada's prosperity and puissance, which that chieftain openly ascribed to the tutelary aid of the Christian deity, accepted See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism and became the " Prince See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew " of missionary records . It is written in those records that " the first thing Prince Andrew did after his baptism was to convert the chief temple of his capital into a church, its revenues being assigned for the maintenance of the building and the support of the missionaries . He then took measures to have the same thing done in the other towns of his fief, and he seconded the preachers of the See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel so well in everything else that he could flatter himself that he soon would not have one single idolater in his states." Thus in the two years that separated his baptism from his death, twenty thousand converts were won in Arima . But his successor was an enemy of the See also:

• ALIEN (Lat. alienus)

alien creed .

He ordered the Jesuits to quit his dominions, required the converts to return to their ancestral faith, and caused " the holy places to be destroyed and the crosses to be thrown down." Nearly one-half of the converts apostatized under this pressure, but others had recourse to a See also:

• DEVICE

device of proved potency . They threatened to leave Kuchinotsu en masse, and as that would have involved the loss of foreign trade, the hostile edict was materially modified, To this same weapon the Christians owed a still more signal victory . For just at that time the great ship from Macao, now an annual visitor, arrived in Japanese waters carrying the visitor-general, Valegnani . She put into Kuchinotsu, and her presence, with its suggested eventualities, gave such See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction that the feudatory offered to accept baptism and to sanction its See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance by his vassals . This did not satisfy Valegnani, a man of profound political sagacity . He saw that the fief was menaced by serious dangers at the hands of its neighbours, and seizing the psychological moment of its extreme peril, he used the secular arm so adroitly that the fief's See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of survival seemed to be limited to the unreserved adoption of Christianity . Thus, in 158o, the chieftain and his wife were baptized; " all the city was made Christian; they burned their idols and destroyed 40 temples, reserving some materials to build churches." Christian propagandism had now made substantial progress . The Annual Letter of 1582 recorded that at the close of 1581, thirty-two years after the landing of Xavier in Japan, there were about 150,000 converts, of whom some 125,000 were in Kiushiu and the remainder in Yamaguchi, Kioto and the neighbourhood of the latter city . The Jesuits in the empire then numbered 75, but down to the year 1563 there had never been more than 9, and down to 1577, not more than 18 . The harvest was certainly great in proportion to the number of sowers . But it was a harvest mainly of artificial growth; forced by the despotic insistence of feudal chiefs who possessed the power of life and death over their vassals, and were influenced by a desire to attract foreign trade . To the Buddhist priests .this See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of Christian propagandism had brought an experience hitherto unknown to them, persecution on account of creed .

They had suffered for interfering in politics, but the fierce See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty of the Christian fanatic now became known for the first time to men themselves conspicuous for tolerance of See also:

• HERESY

heresy and receptivity of instruction . They had had no previous experience of humanity in the garb of an Otomo of Bungo, who, in the words of Crasset, " went to the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase of the bonzes as to that of See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts, and made it his singular See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure to exterminate them from his states." In 1582 the first Japanese envoys sailed from Nagasaki for Europe . The See also:

• EMBASSY

embassy consisted of four youths, the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest not more than r6, representing the fiefs of Arima, Omura First and Bungo . They visited Lisbon, See also:

• MADRID

Madrid and Rome, Japanese and in all these cities they were received with Embassy displays of magnificence such as 16th century to Europe . Europe delighted to make . That, indeed, had been the See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive of Valegnani in organizing the mission: he desired to let the Japanese see with their own eyes how great were the riches and might of Western states . In the above statistics of converts at the close of 1581 mention is made of Christians in Kioto, though we have already seen that the visit by Xavier and Fernandez to that city was second wholly barren of results . A second visit, however, visit of made by Vilela in 1559, proved more successful . Jesuits He carried letters of recommendation from the toKtoto . Bungo chieftain, and the proximate cause of his journey was an invitation from a Buddhist priest in the celebrated monastery of Hiei-zan, who sought information about Christianity . This was before the razing of temples and the overthrow of idols had commenced in Kiushiu . On arrival at Hiei-zan, Vilela found that the Buddhist prior who had invited him was dead and that only a portion of the old man's authority had descended to his successor .

Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to expound his doctrines to a party of bonzes at the monastery . Subsequently, through the good offices of a priest, described as " one of the most respected men in the city," and with the assistance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilela enjoyed the rare honour of being received by the shogun in Kioto, who treated him with all consideration and assigned a house for his residence . It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to Buddhist priests, Vilela would have behaved towards them and their creed with courtesy . But the Jesuit fathers were proof against all influences calculated to impair their stern sense of duty . Speaking through the mouth of a Japanese convert, Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured terms and denounced their faith . Soon the bonzes, on their side, were seeking the destruction of these uncompromising assailants with insistence inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have shown in similar circumstances . Against these perils Vilela was protected by the goodwill of the shogun, who had already issued a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree threatening with death any one who injured the missionaries or obstructed their work . In spite of all difficulties and dangers these wonderful missionaries, whose courage, zeal and devotion are beyond all eulogy, toiled on resolutely and even recklessly, and such success attended their efforts that by 1564 many converts had been won and churches had been established in five walled towns within a distance of 50 See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles from Kioto . Among the converts were two Buddhist priests, notoriously hostile at the outset, who had been nominated as official commissioners to investigate and See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report upon the doctrine of Christianity . The first conversion en masse was due to pressure from above . A petty feudatory, Takayama, whose fief lay at Takatsuki in the neighbourhood of the capital, challenged Vilela to a public controversy, the result of which was that the Japanese acknowledged himself vanquished, embraced Christianity and invited his vassals as well as his family to follow his example . This man's son—Takayama Yusho—proved one of the stanchest supporters of Christianity in all Japan, and has been immortalized by the Jesuits under the name of See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don Justo Ucondono .

Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character of the Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of defeat as frankly as he dared it . In the same year (1564) the feudatory of Sawa, a brother of Takayama, became a Christian and imposed the faith on all his vassals, just as Sumitada and other feudal chiefs had done in Kiushiu . But the Kioto record differs from that of Kitishiu in one important respect—the former is free from any intrusion of commercial motives . Kioto was at that time the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of sanguinary tumults, which culminated in the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the shogun (1565), and led to Nobunaga the issue of a decree by the emperor proscribing and the Christianity . In Japanese medieval history this JO8uit'. is one of the only two instances of Imperial interference with Christian propagandism . There is evidence that the edict was obtained at the instance of one of the shogun 's assassins and certain Buddhist priests . The Jesuits—their number had been increased to three—were obliged to take See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in See also:

• SAKAI

Sakai, now little more than a suburb of See also:

• OSAKA

Osaka, but at that time a great and wealthy mart, and the only town in Japan which did not acknowledge the sway of any feudal chief . Three years later they were summoned thence to be presented to Oda Nobunaga, one of the greatest captains Japan has ever produced . In the very year of Xavier's landing at Kagoshima, Nobunaga had succeeded to his father's fief, a comparatively petty See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate in the province of Owari . In 1568 he was seated in Kioto, a maker of shoguns and acknowledged ruler of 30 among the 66 provinces of Japan . Had Nobunaga, wielding such immense power, adopted a hostile attitude towards Christianity, the fires lit by the Jesuits in Japan must soon have been extinguished . Nobunaga, however, to great breadth and liberality of view added strong animosity towards Buddhist priests .

Many of the great monasteries had become armed camps, their inmates skilled equally in field-attacks and in the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of ramparts . One sect (the Nichiren), which was specially affected by the samurai, had See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent powerful aid to the murderers of the shogun three years before Nobunaga's victories carried him to Kioto, and the armed monasteries constituted imperia in imperio which assorted See also:

• ILL

ill with his ambition of complete supremacy . He therefore welcomed Christianity for the sake of its opposition to Buddhism, and when Takayama conducted Froez from Sakai to Nobunaga's presence, the reception accorded to the Jesuit was of the most cordial character . Throughout the fourteen years of life that remained to him, Nobunaga continued to be the constant friend of the missionaries in particular and of foreigners visiting Japan in general . He stood between the Jesuits and the Throne when, in reply to an appeal from the Buddhist priests, the emperor, for the second time, issued an anti-Christian decree (1568); he granted a site for a church and residence at Azuchi on See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• BIWA

Biwa, where his new fortress stood; he addressed to various powerful feudatories letters signifying a desire for the spread of Christianity; he frequently made handsome presents to the fathers, and whenever they visited him he showed a degree of accessibility and graciousness very foreign to his usually haughty and imperious demeanour . The Jesuits themselves said of him: " This man seems to have been chosen by God to open and prepare the way for our faith." Nevertheless they do not appear to have entertained much hope at any time of converting Nobunaga . They must have under-stood that their doctrines had not made any profound impression on a man who could treat them as this potentate did in 1579, when he plainly showed that political exigencies might at anv moment induce him to sacrifice them.' His last See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, too, proved that See also:

• SACRILEGE

sacrilege was of no account in his eyes, for he took steps to have himself apotheosized at Azuchi with the utmost pomp and circumstance . Still nothing can obscure the benefits he heaped upon the propagandists of Christianity . The terrible tumult of domestic war through which Japan passed in the 15th and 16th centuries brought to her service three of the greatest men ever produced in Hideyoshi Occident or Orient . They were Oda Nobunaga, and the Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Iyeyasu . Christians . Hideyoshi, as Nobunaga's See also:

• LIEUTENANT

lieutenant, contributed largely to the building of the latter's fortunes, and, succeeding him in 1582, brought the whole 66 provinces of the empire under his own administrative sway .

For the Jesuits now the absorbing question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards their propagandism . His power was virtually limitless . With a word he could have overthrown the whole edifice created by them at the cost of so much splendid effort and noble devotion . They were very quickly reassured . In this See also:

• MATTER

matter Hideyoshi walked in Nobunaga's footsteps . He not only accorded a friendly audience to Father Organtino, who waited on him as representative of the Jesuits, but also he went in person to assign to the See also:

• COMPANY

company a site for a church and a residence in Osaka, where there was presently to rise the most massive fortress ever built in the East . At that time many Christian converts were serving in high positions, and in 1584 the Jesuits placed it on record that " Hideyoshi was not only not opposed to the things of God, but he even showed that he made much account of them and preferred them to all the sects of the bonzes . . . . He is entrusting to Christians his treasures, his secrets and his for-tresses of most importance, and shows himself well pleased that the sons of the great lords about him should adopt our customs and our law." Two years later in Osaka he received with every mark of cordiality and favour a Jesuit mission which had come from Nagasaki seeking audience, and on that occasion his visitor recorded that he spoke of an intention of christianizing one half of Japan . Nor did Hideyoshi confine himself to words . He actually signed a patent licensing the missionaries to preach throughout all Japan, and exempting not only their houses and churches from the See also:

• BILLETING

billeting of soldiers but also the priests them-selves from local burdens . This was in 1586, on the eve of Hideyoshi's greatest military enterprise, the invasion of Kiushiu and its complete reduction .

He carried that difficult campaign to completion by the middle of 1587, and throughout its course he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour towards the Jesuits . But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached Hakata in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the island, his policy underwent a See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical See also:

• METAMORPHOSIS

metamorphosis . Five questions were by his order propounded to the See also:

• VICE

vice-provincial of the Jesuits: " Why and by what authority he and his fellow-propagandists had constrained Japanese subjects to become Christians ? Why they had induced their disciples and their sectaries to overthrow temples ? Why they persecuted the bonzes ? Why they and other Portuguese See also:

• ATE

ate animals useful to men, such as oxen and cows ? Why the vice-provincial allowed merchants of his nation to buy Japanese to make slaves of them in the Indies?" To these queries Coelho, the vice-provincial, made See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer that the missionaries had never themselves resorted, or incited, to violence in their propagandism or persecuted bonzes; that if their eating of See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef were considered inadvisable, they would give up the practice; and that they were powerless to prevent or restrain the outrages perpetrated by their countrymen . Hideyoshi read the vice-provincial's reply and, without comment, sent him word to retire to Hirado, assemble all his followers there, and quit the country within six months . On the next day (See also:

• JULY

July 25, 1587) the following edict was published: ' The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory whose See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle served for frontier guard to the fiet of a powerful chief, his suzerain . The feudatory was a Christian . Nobunaga seized the Jesuits in Kioto, and threatened to suppress their religion altogether unless they persuaded the feudatory to abandon the cause of his suzerain . " Having learned from our faithful councillors that foreign priests have come into our estates, where they preach a law contrary to that of Japan, and that they even had the audacity to destroy temples dedicated to our Kami and Hotoke; although the See also:

• OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oultrage, from Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger)

outrage merits the most extreme punishment, wishing nevertheless to show them See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy, we order them under See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of death to quit Japan within twenty days .

During that space no harm or hurt will be done to them . But at the expiration of that term, we order that if any of them be found in our states, they should be seized and punished as the greatest criminals . As for the Portuguese merchants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to continue their accustomed trade, and to remain in our states provided our affairs need this . But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests into the country, under the See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty of the confiscation of their ships and goods." How are we to account for this apparently rapid change of mood on the part of Hideyoshi ? Some historians insist that from the very outset he conceived the resolve of suppressing Christianity and expelling its propagandists, but that he concealed his See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design pending the subjugation of Kiushiu, lest, by premature action, he might weaken his hand for that enterprise . This See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis rests mainly on conjecture . Its formulators found it easier to believe in a hidden purpose than to attribute to a statesman so shrewd and far-seeing a sudden change of mind . A more reasonable theory is that, shortly before leaving Osaka for Kiushiu, Hideyoshi began to entertain doubts as to the expediency of tolerating Christian propagandism, and that his doubts were signally strengthened by direct observation of the state of affairs in Kiushiu . While still in Osaka, he one day remarked publicly that " he feared much that all the virtue of the European priests served only to conceal pernicious designs against the empire." There had been no demolishing of temples or overthrowing of images at Christian instance in the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan provinces . In Kiushiu, however, very different conditions prevailed . There Christianity may be said to have been preached at the point of the sword . Temples and images had been destroyed wholesale; vassals in thousands had been compelled to embrace the foreign faith; and the missionaries them-selves had come to be treated as demi-gods whose nod was See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth conciliating at any cost of self-abasement .

Brought into direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power, temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached the conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his own supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of Japan and the yoke of the great Christian states of Europe . Hideyoshi gauged the character of the medieval Christians with sufficient accuracy to know that for the sake of their sequel of faith they would at any time defy the laws of the Edict the island . His estimate received immediate veriof Banish- fication, for when the Jesuits, numbering 1 zo, went. assembled at Hirado and received his order to embark at once they decided that only those should sail whose services were needed in China . The others remained and went about their duties as usual, under the protection of the converted feudatories . Hideyoshi, however, saw reason to wink at this disregard of his authority . At first he showed uncompromising See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution . All the churches in Kioto, Osaka and Sakai were demolished, while troops were sent to raze the Christian places of worship in Kiushiu and seize the port of Nagasaki . These troops were munificently dissuaded from their purpose by the Christian feudatories . But Hideyoshi did not protest, and in 1588 he allowed himself to be convinced by a Portuguese See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

envoy that in the absence of missionaries foreign trade must cease, since without the intervention of the fathers peace and good order could not be maintained among the merchants . Rather than suffer the trade to be interrupted • Hideyoshi agreed to the coming of priests, and thenceforth, during some years, Christianity not only continued to flourish and grow in Kiushiu but also found a favourable field of operations in Kioto itself . Care was taken that Hideyoshi's attention should not be attracted by any salient evidences of what he had called a " diabolical religion," and thus for a time all went well . There is evidence that, like the feudal chiefs in Kiushiu, Hideyoshiset great See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store by foreign trade and would even have sacrificed to its maintenance and expansion something of the aversion he had conceived for Christianity .

He did indeed make one very large concession . For on being assured that Portuguese traders could not frequent Japan unless they found Christian priests there to minister to them, he consented to sanction the presence of a limited number of Jesuits . The statistics of 1595 show how Christianity fared under even this partial tolerance, for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with 300,000 converts, among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of many men of lesser though still considerable See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, and even not a few bonzes . For ten years after his unlooked-for order of See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion, Hideyoshi preserved a tolerant mien . But in 1597 his forbearance gave place to a mood of uncompromising severity . Hideyoshrs The reasons of this second change are very clear, Final though diverse accounts have been transmitted . Attitude Up to 1593 the Portuguese had possessed a monopoly chrtst enity. of religious "propagandism and over-sea commerce in Japan . The privilege was secured to them by agreement between See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal and by a papal See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull . But the Spaniards in See also:

• MANILA

Manila had long looked with somewhat jealous eyes on this Jesuit See also:

• RESERVATION (Lat. reservare, to keep back)

reservation, and when news of the disaster of 1587 reached the Philippines, the See also:

• DOMINICANS

Dominicans and See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans residing there were fired with zeal to enter an See also:

• ARENA (Lat. for " sand ")

arena where the See also:

• CROWN

crown of martyrdom seemed to be the least reward within reach . The papal bull, however, demanded obedience, and to overcome that difficulty a ruse was necessary: the governor of Manila agreed to send a party of Franciscans as ambassadors to Hideyoshi . In that See also:

• GUISE
• GUISE, HOUSE OF

guise the friars, being neither traders nor propagandists, considered that they did not violate either the treaty or the bull . It was a technical subterfuge very unworthy of the object contemplated, and the friars supplemented it by See also:

• SWEARING (O. Eng. swerian, to swear, originally to speak aloud, cf. andswerian, to answer, Ger. schworen, Dan. svaerge, &c., all from root sorer-, to make a sound, cf. " swarm," properly the buzzing of bees, Lat. susurrus)

swearing to Hideyoshi that the Philippines would submit to his sway .

Thus they obtained permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the explicit proviso that they must not preach . Very soon they had built a church in Kioto, consecrated it with the. utmost pomp, and were preaching sermons and chaunting litanies there in flagrant See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of Hideyoshi's veto . Presently their number received an access of three friars who came bearing gifts from the governor at Manila, and now they not only established a See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent in Osaka, but also seized a Jesuit church in Nagasaki and converted the circumspect worship hitherto conducted there by the fathers into services of the most public character . Officially checked in Nagasaki, they charged the Jesuits in Kioto with having intrigued to impede them, and they further vaunted the courageous openness of their own ministrations as compared with the clandestine timidity of the methods which See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise prudence had induced the Jesuits to adopt . Retribution would have followed quickly had not Hideyoshi's attention been engrossed by an attempt to invade China through Korea . At this stage, however, a memorable incident occurred . Driven out of her course by a See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm, a great and richly laden See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish galleon, See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound for Acapulco from Manila, drifted to the coast of Tosa province, and See also:

• RUNNING

running—or being purposely run—on a sand-bank as she was being towed into port by Japanese boats, broke her back . She carried goods to the value of some 600,000 crowns, and certain officials urged Hideyoshi to confiscate her as See also:

• DERELICT (from Lat. derelinquere, to forsake)

derelict, conveying to him at the same time a detailed account of the doings of the Franciscans and their open flouting of his orders . Hideyoshi, much incensed, commanded the See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest of the Franciscans and despatched officers to Tosa to confiscate the " See also:

• SAN

San Felipe." The See also:

• PILOT

pilot of the galleon sought to intimidate these officers by showing them on a See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map of the world the vast extent of Spain's dominions, and being asked how one country had acquired such extended sway, replied: " Our See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings begin by sending into the countries they wish to conquer missionaries who induce the people to embrace our religion, and when they have made considerable progress, troops are sent who combine with the new Christians, and then our kings have not much trouble in accomplishing the rest." On learning of this speech Hideyoshi was overcome with fury . He condemned the Franciscans to have their noses and ears The First cut off, to be promenaded through Kioto, Osaka See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution otand Sakai, and to be crucified at Nagasaki . " I Christians. have ordered these foreigners to be treated thus, because they have come from the Philippines to Japan, calling themselves ambassadors, although they were not so; because they have remained here far too long without my permission; because, in defiance of my See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition, they have built churches, preached their religion and caused disorders." Twenty-six suffered under this See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence—six Franciscans, three Japanese Jesuits and seventeen native Christians, chiefly domestic servants of the Franciscans ? They met their fate with noble fortitude .

Hideyoshi further issued a special See also:

• INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin)

injunction against the adoption of Christianity by a feudal chief, and took steps to give practical effect to his expulsion edict of 1587 . The governor of Nagasaki received instructions to send away all the Jesuits, permitting only two or three to remain for the service of the Portuguese merchants . But the Jesuits were not the kind of men who, to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape See also:

• PERSONAL

personal peril, turn their back upon an unaccomplished work of See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace . There were 125 of them in Japan at that time . In See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1597 a junk sailed out of Nagasaki harbour, her decks crowded with seeming Jesuits . In reality she carried 11 of the company, the apparent Jesuits being disguised sailors . It is not to be supposed that such a manoeuvre could be hidden from the local authorities . They winked at it, until rumour became insistent that Hideyoshi was about to visit Kiushiu in person, and all Japanese in administrative posts knew how Hideyoshi visited disobedience and how hopeless was any attempt to deceive him . Therefore, early in 1598, really drastic steps were taken . Churches to the number of 137 were demolished in Kiushiu, seminaries and residences fell, and the governor of Nagasaki assembled there all the fathers of the company for See also:

• DEPORTATION

deportation to Macao by the great ship in the following year . But while they waited, Hideyoshi died . It is not on record that the Jesuits openly declared his removal from the earth to have been a special dispensation in their favour .

But they pronounced him an execrable See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant and consigned his " soul to See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

hell for all eternity." Yet no impartial reader of history can pretend to think that a 16th-century Jesuit general in Hideyoshi's place would have shown towards an alien creed and its propagandists even a small measure of the tolerance exercised by the Japanese statesman towards Christianity and the Jesuits . - Hideyoshi's death occurred in 1598 . Two years later, his authority as administrative ruler of all Japan had passed into Foreign the hands of Iyeyasu, the Tokugawa chief, and thirty-Policy of the nine years later the Tokugawa potentates had not Tokugawa only exterminated Christianity in Japan but had Rulers. also condemned their country to a period of See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation which continued unbroken until 1853, an interval of 214 years . It has been shown that even when they were most incensed against Christianity, Japanese administrators sought to foster and preserve foreign trade . Why then did they close the country's doors to the outside world and suspend a commerce once so much esteemed ? To answer that question some retrospect is needed . Certain historians allege that from the outset Iyeyasu shared Hideyoshi's misgivings about the real designs of Christian potentates and Christian propagandists . But that See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict is not supported by facts . The first occasion of the Tokugawa chief's recorded contact with a Christian propagandist was less than three months after Hideyoshi's death . There was then led into his presence a Franciscan, by name See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome de Jesus, originally a member of the fictitious embassy from Manila . This man's conduct constitutes an example of the invincible zeal and courage inspiring a Christian priest in those days . Barely escaping the See also:

• DOOM (Old Eng. dOm, a word common to Tent. languages for that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning of " place "; cf, Gr. &Ass, from stem of ri'rust)

doom of crucifixion which overtook his companions, he had been deported from Japan to ' The See also:

• MUTILATION (from Lat. mutilus, maimed)

mutilation was confined to the See also:

• LOBE

lobe of one See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear .

Crucifixion, according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and piercing the heart with two See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp spears driven from either side . Death was always instantaneous . Manila at a time when death seemed to be the certain penalty of remaining . But no sooner had he been landed at Manila than he took passage in a Chinese junk, and, returning to Nagasaki, made his way secretly from the far south of Japan to the province of Kii . There arrested, he was brought into the presence of Iyeyasu, and his own record of what ensued is given in a letter subsequently sent to Manila: " When the Prince saw me he asked how I had managed to escape the previous persecution . I answered him that at that date God had delivered me in order that I might go to Manila and bring back new colleagues from there—preachers of the divine law—and that I had returned from Manila to encourage the Christians, cherishing the desire to See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die on the cross in order to go to enjoy eternal See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory like my former colleagues . On See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing these words the Emperor began to smile, whether in his quality of a See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan of the sect of Shaka, which teaches that there is no future life, or whether from the thought that I was frightened at having to be put to death . Then, looking at me kindly, he said, ' Be no longer afraid and no longer conceal yourself, andhno longer change your See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit, for I wish you well; and as for the Christians who every year pass within sight of the Kwanto where my domains are, when they go to See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico with their ships, I have a keen desire for them to visit the harbours of this island, to refresh themselves there, and to take what they wish, to trade with my vassals and to teach them how to develop See also:

• SILVER

silver mines; and that my intentions may be accomplished before my death, I wish you to indicate to me the means to take to realize them.' I answered that it was necessary that Spanish pilots should take the soundings of his harbours, so that ships might not be lost in future as the 'San Felipe had been, and that he should solicit this service from the governor of the Philippines . The Prince approved of my See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice, and accordingly he has sent a Japanese See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman, a native of Sakai, the See also:

• BEARER

bearer of this See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message . . . . It is essential to oppose no obstacle to the complete liberty offered by the Emperor to the Spaniards and to our holy order, for the preaching of the holy gospel . . .

. The same Prince (who is about to visit the Kwanto) invites me to accompany him to make choice of a house, and to visit the harbour which he promises to open to us; his desires in this respect are keener than I can See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express." The above version of the Tokugawa chief's mood is confirmed by events, for not only did he allow the contumelious Franciscan to build a church—the first—in Yedo and to celebrate Mass there, but also he sent three embassies to the Philippines, proposing reciprocal freedom of commerce, offering to open ports in the Kwanto and asking for competent naval architects . He never obtained the architects, and though the trade came, its volume was small in comparison with the abundance of friars that accompanied it . There is just a possibility that Iyeyasu saw in these Spanish monks an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of counteracting the influence of the Jesuits, for he must have known that the Franciscans opened their mission in Yedo by " declaiming with violence against the fathers of the company of Jesus." In short, the Spanish monks assumed towards the Jesuits in Japan the same intolerant and abusive See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone that the Jesuits themselves had previously assumed towards Buddhism . At that time there appeared upon the scene another factor destined greatly to complicate events . It was a Dutch merchant ship, the " Liefde." Until the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands revolted from Spain, the Dutch had been the principal distributors of all goods arriving at Lisbon from the Far East; but in 1594 See also:

• PHILIP
• PHILIP (Gr.'FiXtrsro , fond of horses, from dn)^eiv, to love, and limos, horse; Lat. Philip pus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Philippes, Dutch Filips, and, with dropping of the final s, It. Filippo, Fr. Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe)
• PHILIP, JOHN (1775-1851)
• PHILIP, KING (c. 1639-1676)
• PHILIP, LANOGRAVE OF HESSE (1504-1567)

Philip II. closed the port of Lisbon to these rebels, and the Dutch met the situation by turning their prows to the Orient to invade the sources of Portuguese commerce . One of the first expeditions despatched for that purpose set out in 1598, and of the five vessels composing it one only was ever heard of again . This was the " Liefde." She reached Japan during the spring of 1600, with only fourand-twenty alive out of her original crew of 11o . Towed into the harbour at Funai, the " Liefde " was visited by Jesuits, who, on discovering her See also:

• NATIONALITY

nationality, denounced her to the local authorities as a pirate and endeavoured to See also:

• INCENSE

incense the Japanese against them . The " Liefde " had on board in the capacity of " pilot See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major " an Englishman, Will See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams of See also:

• GILLINGHAM

Gillingham in See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, whom Iyeyasu summoned to Osaka, where there commenced between the rough See also:

• BRITISH

British sailor and the Tokugawa chief a curiously friendly intercourse which was not interrupted until the death of Adams twenty years later . The Englishman became master ship-builder to the Yedo government; was employed as See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent when other traders from his own country and from See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland arrived in Japan, received in perpetual See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift a substantial estate, and from first to last possessed the implicit confidence of the shogun . Iyeyasu quickly discerned the man's honesty, perceived that whatever benefits foreign commerce might confer would be increased by encouraging competition among the foreigners, and realized that English and Dutch trade presented the wholesome feature of complete See also:

• DISSOCIATION

dissociation from religious propagandism . On the other hand, he showed no intolerance to either Spaniards or Portuguese .

He issued (16or) two official See also:

• PATENTS

patents sanctioning the residence of the fathers in Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki; he employed Father See also:

• RODRIGUEZ (officially RODRIGUES)

Rodriguez as interpreter to the court at Yedo; and in 1603 he gave munificent succour to the Jesuits who were reduced to dire straits owing to the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of the great ship from Macao by the Dutch and the consequent loss of several years' supplies for the mission in Japan . It is thus seen that each of the great trio of Japan's 16th-century statesmen—Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu—adopted at the outset a most tolerant demeanour towards Christianity . The reasons of Hideyoshi's change of mood have been set forth . We have now to examine the reasons that produced a similar metamorphosis in the case of Iyeyasu . Two causes See also:

• PRESENT

present themselves immediately . The first is that, while tolerating Christianity, Iyeyasu did not approve of it as a creed; the second, that he himself, whether from state policy or genuine piety, strongly encouraged Buddhism . Proof of the former proposition is found in an order issued by him in 16o2 to insure the safety of foreign merchantmen entering Japanese ports: it concluded with the reservation, " but we rigorously, forbid them " (foreigners coming in such ships) " to promulgate their faith." Proof of the latter is furnished by the facts that he invariably carried about with him a See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature Buddhist See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image which he regarded as his tutelary deity, and that he fostered the creed of Shaka as zealously as Oda Nobunaga had suppressed it . There is much difficulty in tracing the exact sequence of events which gradually educated a strong antipathy to the Christian faith in the mind of the Tokugawa chief . He must have been influenced in some degree by the views of his great predecessor, Hideyoshi . But he did not accept those views implicitly . At the end of the 16th century he sent a trusted emissary to Europe for the purpose of directly observing the conditions in the home of Christianity, and this man, the better to achieve his aim, embraced the foreign faith, and studied it from within as well as from without . The story that he had to tell on his return could not fail to See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock the ruler of a country where freedom of conscience had existed from time immemorial .

It was a story of the inquisition and of the stake; of unlimited aggression in the name of the cross; of the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope's overlordship which entitled him to confiscate the See also:

• REALM

realm of heretical sovereigns; of religious wars and of wellnigh incredible fanaticism . Iyeyasu must have received an evil impression while he listened to his emissary's statements . Under his own eyes, too, were abundant evidences of the spirit of strife that Christian dogma engendered in those times . From the moment when the Franciscans and Dominicans arrived in Japan, a fierce See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel began between them and the Jesuits; a quarrel which even community of suffering could not compose . Not less repellent was an attempt on the part of the Spaniards to dictate to Iyeyasu the expulsion of all Hollanders from Japan, and on the part of the Jesuits to dictate the expulsion of the Spaniards . The former proposal, couched almost in the form of a demand, was twice formulated, and accompanied on the second occasion by a scarcely less insulting offer, namely, that Spanish men-of-war would be sent to Japan to burn all Dutch ships found in the ports of the empire . If in the face of proposals so contumelious of his sovereign authority Iyeyasu preserved a See also:

• CALM

calm and dignified mien, merely replying that his country was open to all corners, and that, if other nations had quarrels among themselves, they must not take Japan for See also:

• BATTLE

battle-ground, it is nevertheless unimaginable that he did not strongly resent such interference with his own independent foreign policy, and that he did not interpret it as foreshadowing a disturbance of the realm's peace by sec-tarian quarrels among Christians . These experiences, predisposing Iyeyasu to dislike Christianity as a creed and to distrust it as a political influence, were soon supplemented by incidents of an immediately determinative character . The first was an act of See also:

• FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit)

fraud and See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

forgery committed in the interests of a Christian feudatory by a trusted official, himself a Christian . Thereupon Iyeyasu, conceiving it unsafe that Christians should fill offices at his court, dismissed all those so employed, banished them from Yedo and forbade any feudal chief to harbour them . The second incident was an attempted survey of the coast of Japan by a Spanish mariner and a Franciscan See also:

• FRIAR (from the Lat. (rater, through the Fr. frere)

friar . Permission to take this step had been obtained by an envoy from New Spain, but no deep consideration of reasons seems to have preluded the per-mission on Japan's side, and when the mariner (See also:

• SEBASTIAN
• SEBASTIAN, ST

Sebastian) and the friar (Sotelo) hastened- to carry out the project, Iyeyasu asked Will Adams to explain this display of industry .

The Englishman replied that such a proceeding would be regarded in Europe as an act of hostility, especially on the part of the Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions were notorious . He added, in reply to further questions, that "the Roman priest-hood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden, See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark, Holland and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, and that although his own country preserved the pure form of the Christian faith from which Spain and Portugal had deviated, yet neither English nor Dutch considered that that fact afforded them any reason to war with, or to annex, States which were not Christian solely for the reason that they were non-Christian." Iyeyasu reposed entire confidence in Adams . Hearing the Englishman's testimony, he is said to have exclaimed, " If the sovereigns of Europe do not tolerate these priests, I do them no wrong if I refuse to tolerate them." Japanese historians add that Iyeyasu discovered a See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy on the part of some Japanese Christians to overthrow his government by the aid of foreign troops . It was not a widely ramified See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot, but it lent additional importance to the fact that the sympathy of the fathers and their converts was plainly with the only See also:

• MAGNATE (Late Lat. magnas, a great man)

magnate in the empire who continued to dispute the Tokugawa supremacy, Hideyori, the son of Hideyoshi . Nevertheless Iyeyasu shrank from proceeding to extremities in the case of any foreign priest, and this attitude he maintained until his death (1616) . Possibly he might have been not less tolerant towards native Christians also had not the Tokugawa authority been openly defied by a Franciscan father—the Sotelo mentioned above—in Yedo itself . Then (1613) the first execution of Japanese converts took place, though the See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk himself was released after a short incarceration . At that time, as is still the case even in these more enlightened days, insignificant differences of See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom sometimes induced serious misconceptions . A Christian who had violated the secular law was crucified in Nagasaki . Many of his fellow-believers kneeled around his cross and prayed for the peace of his soul . A party of converts were afterwards burned to death in the same place for refusing to apostatize, and their Christian friends crowded to carry off portions of their bodies as holy See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics . When these things were reported to Iyeyasu, he said, " Without doubt that must be a diabolic faith which persuades people not only to worship criminals condemned to death for their crimes, but also to honour those who have been burned or cut in pieces by the order of their See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord " (feudal chief) .

The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be collected in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that all churches should be demolished, and that the suppression converts should be compelled to abjure Christianity, of was issued on the 27th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1614 . There were Christianity• then in Japan 122 Jesuits, 14 Franciscans, 9 Dominicans, 4 Augustins and 7 secular priests . Had these men obeyed the orders of the Japanese authorities by leaving the country finally, not one foreigner would have suffered for his faith in Japan, except the 6 Franciscans executed at Nagasaki by order of Hideyoshi in 1597 . But suffering and death counted for nothing with the missionaries as against the possibility of winning or keeping even one convert . See also:

• FORTY

Forty-seven of them evaded the edict, some by concealing themselves at the time of its issue, the rest by leaving their ships when the latter had passed out of sight of the shore of Japan, and returning by boats to the scene of their former labours . Moreover, in a few months, those that had actually crossed the sea re-crossed it in' various disguises, and soon the Japanese government had to consider whether it would suffer its authority to be thus flouted or resort to extreme measures . During two years immediately following the issue of the anti-Christian decree, the attention of the Tokugawa chief and in-See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed of all Japan was concentrated on the closing See also:

• EPISODE

episode of the great struggle which assured to Iyeyasu final supremacy as .administrative ruler of the empire . That episode was a terrible battle under the walls of Osaka castle between the adherents of the Tokugawa and the supporters of Hideyori . In this struggle fresh See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel was added to the fire of anti-Christian resentment, for many Christian converts threw in their See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot with Hideyori, and in one part of the field the Tokugawa troops found themselves fighting against a foe whose banners were emblazoned with the cross and with images of the Saviour and St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James, the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of Spain . But the Christians had protectors . Many of the feudatories showed themselves strongly averse from inflicting the extreme penalty on men and women whose adoption of an alien religion had been partly forced by the feudatories themselves . As for the people at large, their liberal spirit is attested by the fact that five fathers who were in Osaka castle at the time of its capture made their way to distant refuges without encountering any risk of betrayal .

During these events the death of Iyeyasu took place (See also:

• JUNE

June r, 1616), and pending the dedication of his See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

mausoleum the anti-Christian crusade was virtually suspended . In See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1616 a new anti-Christian edict was promulgated by Hidetada, son and successor of Iyeyasu . It pronounced sentence of exile against all Christian priests, including even those whose presence had been sanctioned for ministering to the Portuguese merchants: it forbade the Japanese, under the penalty of being burned alive and of having all their property confiscated, to have any connexion with the ministers of religion or to give them hospitality . It was forbidden to any prince or lord to keep Christians in his service or even on his estates, and the edict was promulgated with more than usual solemnity, though its enforcement was deferred until the next year on account of the See also:

• OBSEQUIES (Med. Lat. obsequiae, formed after class. Lat. exsequiae)

obsequies of Iyeyasu . This edict of 1616 differed from that issued by Iyeyasu in 1614, since the latter did not prescribe the death penalty for converts refusing to apostatize . But both agreed in indicating expulsion as the sole manner of dealing with the foreign priests . As for the shogun and his advisers, it is reasonable to assume that they did not anticipate much See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for recourse to violence . They must have known that a great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the converts had joined the Christian church at the instance or by the command of their local rulers, and nothing can have seemed less likely than that a creed thus lightly embraced would be adhered to in defiance of See also:

• TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist)

torture and death . It is moreover morally certain that had the foreign propagandists obeyed the Government's edict and left the country, not one would have been put to death . They suffered because they defied the laws of the land . Some fifty missionaries happened to be in Nagasaki when Hidetada's edict was issued . A number of these were apprehended and deported, but several of them returned almost immediately .

This happened under the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of Omura, who bad been specially charged with the duty of sending away the bateren (padres) . He appears to have concluded that a striking example must be furnished, and he therefore ordered the seizure and decapitation of two fathers, De 1' Assumpcion and Machado . The result completely falsified his calculations, and presaged the cruel struggle now destined to begin . The bodies, placed in different coffins, were interred in the same grave . See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

Guards were placed over it, but the concourse was immense . The sick were carried to the See also:

• SEPULCHRE, CANONS REGULAR OF THE HOLY
• SEPULCHRE, EASTER
• SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY

sepulchre to be restored to See also:

• HEALTH

health . The Christians found new strength in this martyrdom; the pagans them-selves were full of admiration for it . Numerous conversions and numerous returns of apostates took place everywhere . In the midst of all this, Navarette, the vice-provincial of the Dominicans, and See also:

• AYALA, DON PEDRO LOPEZ DE (1332–1407)

Ayala, the vice-provincial of the Augustins, came out of their See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat, and in full priestly garb started upon an open propaganda . The two fanatics—for so even See also:

• CHARLEVOIX
• CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS

Charlevoix considers them to have been—were secretly conveyed to the island Takashima and there decapitated, while their coffins were weighted with big stones and sunk in the sea . Even more directly defiant was the attitude of the next martyred priest, an old Franciscan monk, Juan de See also:

• SANTA

Santa Martha . He had for three years suffered all the horrors of a medieval Japanese See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison, when it was proposed to See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release him and deport him to New Spain .

His answer was that, if released, he would stay in Japan and preach there . He laid his head on the See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block in August 1618 . But from that time until 1622 no other foreign missionary suffered capital punishment in Japan, though many of them arrived in the country and continued their propagandism there . During that interval, also, there occurred another incident eminently calculated to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix upon the Christians still deeper suspicion of political designs . In a Portuguese ship captured by the Dutch a letter was found instigating the Japanese converts to revolt, and promising that, when the number of these disaffected Christians was sufficient, men-of-war would be sent to aid them . Not the least potent of the influences operating against the Christians was that See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets were written by apostates attributing the zeal of the foreign propagandists solely to political motives . Yet another See also:

• INDICTMENT (from Anglo-Fr. enditernent, enditer, to charge; Lat. in, against, dictare, declare)

indictment of Spanish and Portuguese propagandists was contained in a despatch addressed to Hidetada in 1620 by the See also:

• ADMIRAL

admiral in command of the British and Dutch See also:

• FLEET

fleet then cruising in Far-Eastern waters . In that document the friars were flatly accused of treacherous practices, and the Japanese ruler was warned against the aggressive designs of Philip of Spain . In the face of all this evidence the Japanese ceased to hesitate, and a time of terror ensued for the fathers and their converts . The measures adopted towards the missionaries gradually increased in severity . In 1617 the first two fathers put to death (De 1' Assumpcion and Machado) were beheaded, " not by the common executioner, but by one of the first officers of the prince." Subsequently Navarette and Ayala were decapitated by the executioner . Then, in 1618, Juan de Santa Martha was executed like a common criminal, his body being dismembered and his head exposed .

Finally, in 1622, Zuniga and See also:

• FLORES

Flores were burnt alive . The same year was marked by the " great martyrdom " at Nagasaki when 9 foreign priests went to the stake with 19 Japanese converts . The shogun seems to have been now labouring under vivid fear of a foreign invasion . An emissary sent by him to Europe had returned on the eve of the " great martyrdom " after seven years abroad, and had made a report more than ever unfavourable to Christianity . Therefore Hidetada deemed it necessary to refuse audience to a Philippine embassy in 1624 and to deport all Spaniards from Japan . Further, it was decreed that no Japanese Christian should thenceforth be suffered to go abroad for commerce, and that though non-Christians or men who had apostatized might travel freely, they must not visit the Philippines . Thus ended all intercourse between Japan and Spain . It had continued for 32 years and had engendered a widespread conviction that Christianity was an instrument of Spanish aggression . Iyemitsu, son of Hidetada, now ruled in Yedo, though Hidetada himself remained the power behind the throne . The year (1623) of the former's See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession to power had been marked by the re-issue of anti-Christian decrees, and by the martyrdom of some Soo Christians within the Tokugawa domains, whither the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of persecution now flowed for the first time . Thenceforth the campaign was continuous . The men most active and most relentless in carrying on the persecution were Mizuno and Takenaka, governors of Nagasaki, and Matsukura, feudatory of Shimabara .

By the latter were invented the punishment of throwing converts into the soifataras at Unzen and the torture of the See also:

• FOSSE (or Foss) WAY

fosse, which consisted in suspension by the feet, head downwards, in a See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

pit until See also:

• BLOOD

blood oozed from the mouth, nose and ears . Many endured this latter torture for days, until death came to their See also:

• RELIEF

relief, but a few—notably the Jesuit provincial Ferreyra—apostatized . Matsukura and Takenaka were so strongly obsessed by the Spanish menace that they contemplated the conquest of the Philippines in order to deprive the Spaniards of a Far-Eastern See also:

• BASE

base . But timid counsels then prevailed in Yedo, where the spirit of a Nobunaga, a Hideyoshi or an Iyeyasu no longer presided . Of course the measures of repression grew in severity as the fortitude of the Christians became more obdurate . It is not possible to state the exact number of victims . Some historians say that, down to 1635, no fewer than 280,000 were punished, but that figure is probably exaggerated, for the most trustworthy records indicate that the converts never aggregated more than 300,000, and many of these, if not a great majority, having accepted the foreign faith very lightly, doubt-less discarded it readily under menace of destruction . Every opportunity was given for apostatizing and for escaping death . See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

Immunity could be secured by pointing out a fellow-convert, and when it is'observed that among the seven or eight feudatories who embraced Christianity only two or three died in that faith, we must conclude that not a few cases of recanting occurred among the commoners . Remarkable fortitude, however, is said to have been displayed . If the converts were intrepid their teachers showed no less courage . Again and again the latter defied the Japanese authorities by coming to the country or returning thither after having been deported .

Ignoring the orders of the governors of Macao and Manila and even of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Spain himself, they arrived, year after year, to be certainly apprehended and sent to the stake after brief periods of propagandism . In 1626 they actually baptized over 3000 converts . Large rewards were paid to anyone denouncing a propagandist, and as for the people, they had to trample upon a picture of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ in order to prove that they were not Christians . Meanwhile the feuds between the Dutch, the Spaniards and the Portuguese never ceased . In 1636, the 1 utch found on a captured Portuguese vessel a report of the governor of Macao describing a two days' festival which had been held there in honour of Vieyra, the vice-provincial whose martyrdom had just taken place in Japan . This report the Dutch handed to the Japanese authorities " in order that his See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

majesty may see more clearly what great honour the Portuguese pay to those he has forbidden his realm as traitors to the state and to his crown." Probably the See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation added little to the resentment and distrust already harboured by the Japanese against the Portuguese . At all events the Yedo government took no step distinctly hostile to Portuguese laymen until 1637, when an edict was issued for-bidding any foreigners to travel in the empire, lest Portuguese with passports bearing Dutch names might enter it . This was the beginning of the end . In the last month of 1637 a rebellion broke out, commonly called the " Christian revolt of Shimabara," which sealed the fate of Japan's foreign intercourse for over 200 years . The promontory of Shimabara and the island of Amakusa enclose the gulf of Nagasaki on the west . Among all the fiefs in Japan, Shimabara and Amakusa had been the two The Shlma- See also:

• BARE

bare Revolt. most thoroughly christianized in the early years of Jesuit propagandism . Hence in later days they were naturally the scene of the severest persecutions .

Still the people would probably have suffered in silence had they not been taxed beyond all endurance to supply funds for an extravagant chief who employed See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage methods of See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion . Japanese See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

annals, however, relegate the taxation grievance to an altogether secondary place, and attribute the revolt solely to the instigation of five samurai who led a roving life to avoid persecution for their adherence to Christianity . Whichever version be correct, it is certain that the outbreak ultimately attracted all the Christians from the surrounding regions, and was regarded by the authorities as in effect a Christian rising . The Amakusa insurgents passed over to Shimabara, and on the 27th of January 1638 the whole body—numbering, according to some authorities, 20,000 fighting men with 17,000 women and children; according to others, little more than one-half of these figures—took possessionof the dilapidated castle of Hara, which stood on a See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau with three sides descending perpendicularly to the sea, a hundred feet beneath, and with a swamp on its fourth front . There the insurgents, who fought under flags with red crosses and whose battle cries were " Jesus," " Maria " and " St Iago," successfully maintained themselves against the repeated assaults of strong forces until the 12th of April, when, their See also:

• AMMUNITION

ammunition and their provisions alike exhausted, they were overwhelmed and put to the sword, with the exception of 105 prisoners . During the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege the Dutch were enabled to furnish a vivid proof of enmity to the Christianity of the Spaniards and the Portuguese . For the guns in possession of the besiegers being too light to accomplish anything, Koeckebacker, the factor at Hirado, was invited to send ships carrying heavier metal . He replied with the " de Ryp " of 20 guns, which threw 426 shot into the castle in 15 days . Probably the great bulk of the remaining Japanese Christians perished at the See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of Hara . Thenceforth there were few martyrs .. It has been clearly shown that Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu were all in favour of foreign intercourse and trade, and that the Tokugawa chief, even more than his prede- Foreign cessor Hideyoshi, made strenuous efforts to differ- Trade to entiate between Christianity and commerce, so that the 17th the latter might not be involved in the former's fate . Century .

In fact the three See also:

• OBJECTS

objects which Iyeyasu desired most earnestly to See also:

• COMPASS (Fr. corn pas, ultimately from Lat. cum, with, and passus, step)

compass were the development of foreign commerce, the acquisition of a mercantile marine and the exploitation of Japan's mines . He offered the Spaniards, Portuguese, English and Dutch a site for a See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in Yedo, and had they accepted the offer the country might never have been closed . In his time Japan was virtually a free-trade country . Importers had not to pay any duties . It was expected, however, that they should make presents to the feudatory into whose port they carried their goods, and these presents were often very valuable . Naturally the Tokugawa chief desired to attract such a source of wealth to his own domains . He sent more than one envoy to Manila to urge the opening of commerce direct with the regions about Yedo, and to ask the Spaniards for competent naval architects . Perhaps the truest exposition of his attitude is given in a law enacted in 1602: 4' If any foreign vessel by stress of See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather is obliged to See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch at any principality onto put into any harbour of Japan, we order that, whoever these foreigners may be, absolutely nothing whatever that belongs to them or that they may have brought in their ship, shall be taken from them . Likewise we rigorously prohibit the use of any violence in the See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase or the sale of any of the commodities brought by their ship, and if it is not convenient for the merchants of the ship to remain in the port they have entered, they may pass to any other port that may suit them, and therein buy and sell in full freedom . Likewise we order in a general manner that foreigners may freely reside in any part of Japan they choose, but we rigorously forbid them to promulgate their faith." It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence to the Dutch to trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that the ships which they promised to send every year would make their dept at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo . But things were ordered differently . The first Hollanders that set foot in Japan were the survivors of the wrecked " Liefde." Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by emissaries from the feudatory of Hirado, who engaged some of them to teach the art of casting guns and the science of gunnery to his vassals, and when two of them were allowed to leave Japan, he furnished them with the means of doing so, at the same time making promises which invested Hirado with attractions as a port of trade, though it was then and always remained an insignificant fishing village .

The Dutch possessed precisely the qualifications suited to the situation then existing in Japan: they had commercial potentialities without any religious associations . Fully appreciating that fact, the shrewd feudatory of Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to his fief, and he succeeded . Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which clearly betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chief's desire to See A History of Christianity in Japan (1910), by See also:

• OTIS, HARRISON GRAY (1765-1848)
• OTIS, JAMES (1725–1783)

Otis See also:

• CARY, ALICE (1820-1871)
• CARY, ANNIE LOUISE (1842- )
• CARY, HENRY FRANCIS (1772-1844)

Cary . exploit Japan's mines . The governor-general of the Philippines (Don Rodrigo See also:

• VIVERO

Vivero y Velasco), his ship being See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast away on the Japanese coast on a voyage to Acapulco, was received by Iyeyasu, and in response to the latter's request for fifty miners, the Spaniard formulated terms to which Iyeyasu actually agreed: that half the produce of the mines should go to the miners; that the other half should be divided between Iyeyasu and the king of Spain; that the latter might send commissioners to Japan to look after his mining interests, and that these commissioners might be accompanied by priests who would be entitled to have public churches for holding services . This was in 1609, when the Tokugawa chief had again and again imposed the strictest veto on Christian propagandism . There can be little doubt that he understood the concession made to Don Rodrigo in the sense of Hideyoshi's mandate to the Jesuits in Nagasaki, namely, that a sufficient number might remain to minister to the Portuguese traders frequenting the port . Iyeyasu had confidence in himself and in his countrymen . He knew that emergencies could be dealt with when they arose and he sacrificed nothing to timidity . But his courageous policy died with him and the miners did not come . Neither did the Spaniards ever devote any successful efforts to establishing trade with Japan . Their vessels paid fitful visits to Uraga, but the Portuguese continued to monopolize the commerce .

In x61 i a Dutch merchantman (the " Brach ") reached Hirado with a cargo of See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper, See also:

• CLOTH

cloth, See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, silk See also:

• AWL (0. Eng. ael; at one time spelt nawl by a confusion with the indefinite article before it)

awl See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead . She carried opening of two envoys, Spex and Segerszoon, and in the very Dutch and face of a Spanish embassy which had just arrived Baldish from Manila expressly for the purpose of "settling Trade. the matter regarding the Hollanders," the Dutchmen obtained a liberal patent from Iyeyasu . Twelve years previously, the merchants of London, stimulated generally by the success of the Dutch in trade with the East, and specially by the fact that " these Hollanders had raised the price of pepper against us from 3 shillings per See also:

• POUND
• POUND (2)—(a)

pound to 6 shillings and 8 shillings," organized the East India Company which immediately began to send ships eastward . Of course the news that the Dutch were about to establish a trading station in Japan reached London speedily, and the East India Company lost no time in ordering one of their vessels, the " Clove," under Captain Saris, to proceed to the Far-Eastern islands . She carried a quantity of pepper, and on the voyage she endeavoured to procure some spices at the See also:

• MOLUCCAS, or SPICE ISLANDS

Moluccas . But the Dutch would not suffer any poaching on their valuable monopoly . The " Clove "entered Hirado on the 11th of June 1613 . Saris seems to have been a man self-opinionated, of shallow See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment and suspicious . Though strongly urged by Will Adams to make Uraga the seat of the new trade, though convinced of the excellence of the harbour there, and though instructed as to the great advantage of proximity to the shogun's capital, he appears to have conceived some distrust of Adams, for he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose Hirado . From Iyeyasu Captain Saris received a most liberal See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter, which plainly displayed the mood of the Tokugawa shogun towards foreign trade: I . The ship that has now come for the first time from England over the sea, to Japan may carry on trade of all kinds without hindrance . With regard to future visits (of English ships) permission will be given in regard to all matters .

2 . With regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made by list according to the requirements of the shogunate . 3 . English ships are free to visit any port in Japan . If disabled by storms they may put into any harbour . 4 . Ground In Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be given to the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade there . They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever they wish to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they have erected . 5 . If an Englishman See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies in Japan of disease, or any other cause, his effects shall be handed over without fail . 6 . Forced sales of cargo, and violence, shall not take place .

7 . If one of the English should-commit an offence, he should be sentenced by the English General according to the gravity of his offence . (Translated by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor Riess.) The terms of the 4th article show that the shogun expected the English to make Yedo their headquarters . Had Saris doneso, he would have been free from all competition, would have had an immense market at his very doors, would have economized the expense of numerous overland journeys to the Tokugawa court, and would have saved the payment of many " considerations." The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad management was that, ten years later (1623), the English factory at Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about 2000 . In condonation of this failure it must be noted that a few months after the death of Iyeyasu, the charter he had granted to Saris underwent serious modification . The original document threw open to the English every port in Japan; the revised document limited them to Hirado . But this restriction may be indirectly traced to the blunder of not accepting a settlement in Yedo and a port at Uraga . For the Tokugawa's foreign policy was largely swayed by an See also:

• APPREHENSION (Lat. ad, to; prehendere, to seize)

apprehension lest the Kiushiu feudatories, over whom the authority of Yedo had never been fully established, might, by the presence of foreign traders, come into possession of such a fleet and such an armament as would ultimately enable them to wrest the administration of the empire from Tokugawa hands . Hence the precaution of confining the English and the Dutch to Hirado, the fief of a daimyo too petty to become formidable, and to Nagasaki which was an imperial city.' But evidently an English factory in Yedo and English ships at Uraga would have strengthened the Tokugawa ruler's hand instead of supplying engines of war to his political foes . It must also be noted that the question of locality had another injurious outcome . It exposed the English—and the Dutch also—to crippling competition at the hands of a company of rich Osaka monopolists, who, as representing an Imperial city and therefore being pledged to the Tokugawa interests, enjoyed Yedo's favour and took full advantage of it . These shrewd traders not only drew a See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring round Hirado, but also sent vessels on their own account to See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin China, Siam, Tonkin, See also:

• CAMBODIA

Cambodia and other places, where they obtained many of the staples in which the English and the Dutch dealt .

Still the See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

closure of the English factory at Hirado was purely voluntary . From first to last there had been no serious See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction between the English and the Japanese . The company's houses and godowns were not sold . These 'as well as the charter were left in the hands of the daimyo of Hirado, who promised to restore them should the English re-open business in Japan . The company did think of doing so on more than one occasion, but no practical step was taken until the year 1673, when a merchantman, aptly named the " Return," was sent to seek permission . The Japanese, after mature reflection, made answer that as the king of England was married to a Portuguese princess, British subjects could not be permitted to visit Japan . That this reply was suggested by the Dutch is very probable; that it truly reflected the feeling of the Japanese government towards Roman Catholics is certain . The Spaniards were expelled from Japan in 1624, the Portuguese in 1638 . Two years before the latter event, the Yedo government took a signally retrogressive step . They The Last ordained that no Japanese vessel should go abroad; Daysofthe that no Japanese subject should leave the country, Portuguese and that, if detected attempting to do so, he in /span. should he put to death, the vessel that carried him and her crew being seized "to await our pleasure"; that any Japanese See also:

• RESIDENT

resident abroad should be executed if he returned; that the children and descendants of Spaniards together with those who had adopted such children should not be allowed to remain on pain of death; and that no ship of ocean-going dimensions should be built in Japan . Thus not only were the very children of the Christian propagandists driven completely from the land, but the Japanese people also were sentenced to imprisonment within the limits of their islands, and the country was deprived of all hope of acquiring a mercantile marine . The descendants of the Spaniards, banished by the edict, were taken to Macao in two Portuguese galleons .

They numbered 287 and the property ' The Imperial cities were Yedo, Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki . To this last the English were subsequently admitted . They were also invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazu chieftain, and, had not their experience at Hirado proved so deterrent, they might have established a factory at Kagoshima . they carried with them aggregated 6,607,5oo florins . But if the Portuguese derived any gratification from this sweeping out of their much-abused rivals, the feeling was destined to be short-lived . Already they were subjected to humiliating restrictions . " From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt and their crews executed if any foreign priest was found on board of them . An official of the Japanese government was stationed in Macao for the purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of preventing any one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding to japan . A complete list and personal description of every one on board was drawn up by this officer, a copy of it was handed to the captain and by him it had to be delivered to the authorities who met him at Nagasaki before he was allowed to See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

anchor . If in the subsequent inspection any discrepancy between the list and the persons actually carried by the vessel appeared, it would prove very awkward for the captain . Then in the inspection of the vessel letters were opened, trunks and boxes ransacked, and all crosses, rosaries or objects of religion of any kind had to be thrown over-board . In 1635 Portuguese were forbidden to employ Japanese to carry their umbrellas or their shoes, and only their chief men were allowed to bear arms, while they had to hire fresh servants every year .

It was in the following year (1636) that the artificial islet of Deshima was constructed for their special reception, or rather imprisonment . It lay in front of the former Portuguese factory, with which it was connected by a bridge, and henceforth the Portuguese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only twice a year—at their arrival and at their departure . Furthermore, all their cargoes had to be sold at a fixed price during their fifty days' stay to a ring of licensed merchants from the imperial towns." 1 The See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of such irksome conditions did not deter the Portuguese, who continued to send merchandise-laden galleons to Nagasaki . But in 1638 the See also:

• BOLT

bolt fell . The Shimabara rebellion was directly responsible . Probably the fact of a revolt of Christian converts, in such numbers and fighting with such resolution, would alone have sufficed to induce the weak government in Yedo to get rid of the Portuguese altogether . But the Portuguese were suspected of having instigated the Shimabara insurrection, and the Japanese authorities believed that they had proof of the fact . Hence, in 1638, an edict was issued pro-claiming that as, in defiance of the government's order, the Portuguese had continued to bring missionaries to Japan; as they had supplied these missionaries with provisions and other necessaries, and as they had fomented the Shimabara rebellion, thenceforth any Portuguese ship coming to Japan should be burned, together with her cargo, and every one on board of her should be executed . Ample time was allowed before enforcing this edict . Not only were the Portuguese ships then at Nagasaki permitted to close up their commercial transactions and leave the port, but also in the following year when two galleons arrived from Macao, they were merely sent away with a copy of the edict and a stern warning . But the Portuguese could not easily become reconciled to abandon a commerce from which they had derived splendid profits prior to the intrusion of the Spaniards, the Dutch and the English, and from which they might now hope further gains, since, although the Dutch continued to be formidable rivals, the Spaniards had been excluded, the English had withdrawn, and the Japanese, by the suicidal policy of their own rulers, were no longer able to send ships to China . Therefore they took a step which resulted in one of the saddest episodes of the whole story .

Four aged men, the most respected citizens of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as ambassadors in a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents . They See also:

• BORE

bore a See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition declaring that for a long time no missionaries had entered Japan from Macao, that the Portuguese had not been in any way connected with the Shimabara revolt, and that interruption of trade would injure Japan as much as Portugal . These envoys arrived at Nagasaki on the 1st of July 1640, and 24 days sufficed to bring from Yedo, whither their petition had been sent, See also:

• PEREMPTORY

peremptory orders for their execution as well as executioners to carry out the orders . There was no possibility of resistance . The Japanese had removed the ship's See also:

• RUDDER (O.E. Rather, i.e. rower)

rudder, sails, guns and ammunition, and had placed the envoys, their See also:

• SUITE (Suite de pieces; Ordre; Partita)

suite and the crews under guard in Deshima . On the 2nd of August they were all summoned to the governor's hall of audience, where, after their protest had been heard that ambassadors A History of Japan (Murdoch and See also:

• YAMAGATA, ARITOMO, PRINCE (1838— )

Yamagata).should be under the protection of international law, the sentence written in Yedo 13 days previously was read to them . The following See also:

• MORNING

morning the Portuguese were offered their lives if they would apostatize . Every one rejected the offer, and being then led out to the martyrs' mount, the heads of the envoys and of 57 of their companions fell . Thirteen were saved to carry the news to Macao . These thirteen, after witnessing the burning of the galleon, were conducted to the governor's residence who gave them this message: Do not fail to inform the inhabitants of Macao that the Japanese wish to receive from them neither See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold nor silver, nor any kind of presents or merchandise; in a word, absolutely nothing which comes from them . You are witnesses that I have caused even the clothes of those who were executed yesterday to be burned . Let them do the same with respect to us if they find occasion to do so; we consent to it without difficulty .

Let them think no more of us, just as if we were no longer in the world." Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where, set up above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the story of the embassy and the reasons for the execution, and concluded with the words: " So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold as to come to japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or even the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene this prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads." Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear to future ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion of Spaniards and Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of the policy of seclusion they could not have placed on record more conclusive testimony . Macao received the news with rejoicing in that its " earthly ambassadors had been made ambassadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of over-coming Japan's obduracy . When Portugal recovered her independence in 1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon to send an ambassador to Japan, and on the 16th of July 1647 Don Gonzalo de Siqueira arrived in Nagasaki with two vessels . He carried a letter from King See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John IV., setting forth the severance of all connexion between Portugal and Spain, which countries were now actually at war, and urging that commercial relations should be re-established . The Portuguese, having refused to give up their rudders and arms, soon found themselves menaced by a force of fifty thousand samurai, and were glad to put out of port quietly on the 4th of September . This was the ' last episode in the medieval history of Portugal's intercourse with Japan . When (1609) the Dutch contemplated forming a settlement in Japan, Iyeyasu gave. them a written promise that "no man should do them any wrong and that he would The utch maintain and defend them as his own subjects." tDshima . Moreover, the charter granted to them contained a clause providing that, into whatever ports their ships put, they were not to be molested or hindered in any way, but, " on the contrary, must be shown all manner of help, favour and assistance." They might then have chosen any port in Japan for their headquarters, but they had the misfortune to choose Hirado . For many years they had no cause to regret the choice . Their exclusive possession of the Spice Islands and their own enterprise and command of capital gave them the leading place in Japan's over-sea trade . Even when things had changed greatly for the worse and when the English closed their books with a large loss, it is on record that the Dutch were See also:

• REAPING (from O.E. rypan, rypan, probably allied to " ripe," mature, i.e. " fit for reaping "; the cognate forms are found in other languages)

reaping a profit of 76% annually . Their doings at Hirado were not of a purely commercial character .

The Anglo-Dutch " fleet of defence " made that port its basis of operations against the Spaniards and the Portuguese . It brought its prizes into Hirado, the profits to be equally divided between the fleet and the factories, Dutch and English, which arrangement involved a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622 . But after the death of Iyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground that, though some professed a different form of Christianity from that of the Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one and the same creed . This policy was not definitely adopted, but it made itself See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in a discourteous reception accorded to the commandant of Fort Zelandia when he visited Tokyo in 1627 . He attempted to retaliate upon the Japanese vessels which put into Zelandia in the following year, but the Japanese managed to seize his person, exact reparation for loss of time and obtain five hostages whom they carried to prison in Japan . The Japanese government of that time was wholly intolerant of any injury done to its subjects by foreigners . When news of the Zelandia affair reached Yedo, orders were immediately issued for the See also:

• SEQUESTRATION

sequestration of certain Dutch vessels and for the suspension of the Hirado factory, which veto was not removed for four years . Commercial arrangements, also, became less favourable . The Dutch, instead of selling their silk—which generally formed the principal See also:

• STAPLE

staple of import—in the open market, were required to send it to the Osaka gild of licensed merchants at Nagasaki, by which means, Nagasaki and Osaka being Imperial cities, the Yedo government derived advantage from the transaction . An attempt to evade this onerous system provoked a very stern rebuke from Yedo, and shortly afterwards all Japanese subjects were forbidden to act as servants to the Dutch outside the latter's dwellings . The co-operation of the Hollanders in bombarding the castle of Hara during the Shimabara rebellion (1638) gave them some claim on the shogun's government, but in the same year the Dutch received an imperious warning that the severest penalties would be inflicted if their ships carried priests or any religious objects or books . So profound was the dislike of everything See also:

• RELATING

relating to Christianity that the Dutch nearly caused the ruin of their factory and probably their own destruction by inscribing on some newly erected warehouses the date according to the Christian era .

The factory happened to be then presided over by Caron, a man of extraordinary penetration . Without a moment's hesitation he set 400 men to pull down the warehouses, thus depriving the Japanese of all pretext for recourse to violence . He was compelled, however, to promise that there should be no observance of the See also:

• SABBATH

Sabbath hereafter and that time should no longer be reckoned by the Christian era . In a few months, further evidence of Yedo's ill will was furnished . An edict appeared ordering the Dutch to dispose of all their imports during the year of their arrival, without any See also:

• OPTION (Lat. optio, choice, choosing, optare, to choose)

option of carrying them away should prices be low . They were thus placed at the mercy of the Osaka gild . Further, they were forbidden to slaughter See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle or carry arms, and altogether it seemed as though the situation was to be rendered impossible for them . An envoy despatched from See also:

• BATAVIA

Batavia to remonstrate could not obtain audience of the shogun, and though he presented, by way of re aonstrance, the charter originally granted by Iyeyasu, the reply he received was: " His Majesty charges us to inform you that it is of but slight importance to the Empire of Japan whether foreigners come or do not come to trade . But in consideration of the charter granted to them by Iyeyasu, he is pleased to allow the Hollanders to continue their operations, and to leave them their commercial and other privileges, on the condition that they evacuate Hirado and establish themselves with their vessels in the port of Nagasaki." The Dutch did not at first regard this as a calamity . During their residence of 31 years at Hirado they had enjoyed full freedom, had been on excellent terms with the feudatory and his samurai, and had prospered in their business . But the pettiness of the place and the inconvenience of the anchorage having always been recognized, transfer to Nagasaki promised a splendid harbour and much larger custom . See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

Bitter, therefore, was their disappointment when they found that they were to be imprisoned in Deshima, a quadrangular island whose longest face did not measure 300 yds., and that, so far from living in the town of Nagasaki, they would not be allowed even to enter it .

See also:

• SIEBOLD, CARL THEODOR ERNST VON (1804–1885)
• SIEBOLD, PHILIPP FRANZ VON (1796-1866)

Siebold writes: " A guard at the See also:

• GATE

gate prevented all communications with the city of Nagasaki; no Dutchman without weighty reasons and without the permission of the governor might pass the gate; no Japanese (unless public women) might live in a Dutchman's house . As if this were not enough, even within Deshima itself our state prisoners were keenly watched . No Japanese might speak with them in his :awn language unless in the presence of a See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness (a government See also:

• SPY
• SPY (from " to spy " or " espy"; 0. Fr. espie, espier, to spy, watch; cf. Ger. spdhen, Lat. specere, to look; the Fr. term " espionage "is of course from the same source)

spy)or visit them in their houses . The creatures of the governor had the warehouses under See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key and the Dutch traders ceased to be masters of their property." There were worse indignities to be endured . No Dutchman might be buried in Japanese soil: the dead had to be committed to the deep . Every Dutch ship, her rudder, guns and ammunition removed and her sails sealed, was subjected to the strictest search . No religious service could be held . No one was suffered to pass from one Dutch ship to another without the governor's permit . Sometimes the officers and men were wantonly cudgelled by petty Japanese officials . They led, in short, a life of extreme abasement . Some relaxation of this extreme severity was afterwards obtained, but at no time of their sojourn in Deshima, a period of 217 years, were the Dutch relieved from irksome and humiliating restraints . Eleven years after their removal thither, the expediency of consulting the national honour by finally abandoning an enterprise so derogatory was gravely discussed, but hopes of improvement supplementing natural reluctance to surrender a monopoly which still brought large gains, induced them to persevere .

At that time this Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable . From 7 to 10 Dutch ships used to enter the port annually, carrying cargo valued at some 8o,000 lb of silver, the chief staples of import being silk and piece-goods, and the government levying 5% by way of customs dues . But this did not represent the whole of the charges imposed . A See also:

• RENT

rent of 459 lb of silver had to be paid each year for the little island of Deshima and the houses standing on it; and, further, every spring, the Hollanders were required to send to Yedo a mission bearing for the shogun, the See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir-apparent and the court officials presents representing an aggregate value of about 550 lb of silver . They found their account, nevertheless, in buying gold and copper—especially the latter—for exportation, until the Japanese authorities, becoming alarmed at the great quantity of copper thus carried away, adopted the policy of limiting the number of vessels, as well as their inward and outward cargoes, so that, in 1790, only one ship might enter annually, nor could she carry away more than 350 tons of copper . On the other hand, the formal visits of the captain of the factory to Yedo .were reduced to one every fifth year, and the value of the presents carried by him was cut down to one half . Well-informed historians have contended that, by thus segregating herself from contact with the West, Japan's direct losses were small . Certainly it is true that she could See also:

• GOSS, SIR JOHN (1800–1880)

Goss to not have learned much from European nations In japan by the 17th century . They had little to teach her in adopting the way of religious tolerance; in the way of inter-thePouayof national morality; in the way of social amenities'rd"sbon' and etiquette; in the way of See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic conception and execution; or in the way of that notable See also:

• SHIBBOLETH

shibboleth of modern See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, the open See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door and equal opportunities . Yet when all this is admitted, there remains the vital fact that Japan was thus shut off from the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of competition, and that for nearly two centuries and a half she never had an opportunity of warming her intelligence at the fire of international rivalry or deriving See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration from an exchange of ideas . She stood comparatively still while the world went on, and the interval between her and the leading peoples of the Occident in matters of material civilization had become very wide before she awoke to a sense of its existence . The sequel of this See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page of her history has been faithfully summarized by a modern writer: " A more complete metamorphosis of a nation's policy could scarcely be conceived .

In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated, or notorious, throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits abroad ; we find them known as the ` kings of the sea ' ; we find fhemj welcoming foreigners with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to foreign commerce or even to the propagandism of foreign creeds; we find them so See also:

• QUICK

quick to recognize the benefits of foreign trade and so See also:

• APT

apt to pursue them that, in the space of a few years, they establish commercial relations with no less than twenty over-sea markets; we find them authorizing the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English to trade at every port in the empire ; we find, in short, all the elements requisite for a career of commercial enterprise, ocean-going See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

adventure and industrial liberality . In 1641 everything is reversed . Trade is interdicted to all Western peoples except the Dutch, end they are confined to a little island zoo yards in length by 8o in width ; easy sight of Japan's northern island, See also:

• YEZO

Yezo, so that the aspect of foreign ships became quite See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar . From time to time American schooners were cast away on Japan's shores . Generally the survivors were treated with tolerable consideration and ultimately sent to Deshima for shipment to Batavia . Japanese sailors, too, driven out of their route by hurricanes and caught in the stream of the " See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Current," were occasionally carried to the Aleutian Islands, to See also:

• OREGON

Oregon or See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, and in several instances these shipwrecked mariners were taken back to Japan with all kindness by American vessels . On such an errand of mercy the " See also:

• MORRISON, ARTHUR (1863– )
• MORRISON, RICHARD JAMES (1795-1874)
• MORRISON, ROBERT (1782-1834)

Morrison " entered Yedo See also:

• BAY

Bay in 1837, proceeding thence to Kagoshima, only to be driven away by See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon shot; and on such an errand the " Manhattan " in 1845 lay for four days at Uraga while her master (Mercater See also:

• COOPER
• COOPER (or COUPER), THOMAS (c. 1517-1594)
• COOPER, ABRAHAM (1787—1868)
• COOPER, ALEXANDER (d. i66o)
• COOPER, CHARLES HENRY (18o8-1866)
• COOPER, JAMES FENIMORE (1789-1851)
• COOPER, PETER (1791-1883)
• COOPER, SAMUEL (1609-1672)
• COOPER, SIR ASTLEY PASTON (1768-1841)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1759–1840)
• COOPER, THOMAS (1805–1892)
• COOPER, THOMAS SIDNEY (1803–1902)

Cooper) collected books and charts . It would seem that his experience induced the See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington government to attempt the opening of Japan . A ninety-gun ship and a See also:

• SLOOP

sloop were sent on the errand . They anchored off Uraga (July 1846) and See also:

• COMMODORE (a form of " commander"; in the 17th century the term " commandore " is used)

Commodore See also:

• BIDDLE, JOHN (1615-1662)
• BIDDLE, NICHOLAS (1786—1844)

Biddle made due application for trade . But he received a positive refusal, and having been instructed by his government to abstain from any act calculated to excite hostility or distrust, he quietly weighed anchor and sailed away . In this same year (1846) a French ship touched at the Riukiu (Luchu) See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago and sought to persuade the islanders that their only security against British aggression was to D,.eat place themselves under the protection of France .

In See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain fact Great Britain was now beginning to interest herself reappears in south China, and more than one warning reached upon the scene . Yedo from Deshima that English war-ships might at any moment visit Japanese waters . The Dutch have been much blamed for thus attempting to See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice Japan against the Occident, but if the dictates of commercial rivalry, as" it was then practised, do not constitute an ample explanation, it should be remembered that England and Holland had recently been enemies, and that the last British vessel,' seen at Nagasaki had gone there hoping to capture the annual Dutch trading-ship from Batavia . Deshima's warnings, however, remained unfulfilled, though they doubtless contributed to Japan's feeling of uneasiness . Then, in 1847, the king of Holland himself intervened . He sent to Yedo various books, together with a map of the world and a despatch advising Japan to abandon her policy of isolation . Within a few months (1849) of the See also:

• RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta, participle of recipere, to receive)

receipt of his Dutch majesty's recommendation, an American brig, the " Preble," under See also:

• COMMANDER

Commander J . Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbour and threatened to See also:

• BOMBARD (derived through Med. Lat. and Fr. forms from Gr. (3oµ(3eiv, to make a humming noise)

bombard the town unless immediate delivery were made of 18 See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen who, having been wrecked in northern waters, were held by the Japanese preparatory to shipment for Batavia . In 1849 another despatch reached Yedo from the king of Holland announcing that an American fleet might be expected in Japanese waters a year later, and that, unless Japan agreed to enter into friendly commercial relations, war must ensue . Appended to this despatch was an approximate draft of the treaty which would be presented for See also:

• SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signature, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign)

signature, together with a copy of a memorandum addressed by the Washington government to European nations, justifying the contemplated expedition on•the ground that it would inure to the advantage of Japan as well as to that of the Occident . In 1853, Commodore See also:

• PERRY
• PERRY (from Fr. Moire, from poire, a pear)
• PERRY, MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794–1858)
• PERRY, OLIVER HAZARD (1785-1819)

Perry, with a See also:

• SQUADRON

squadron of four ships-ofwar and 56o men, entered Uraga Bay . So formidable a foreign force had not been seen in Japanese waters since the coming of the Mongol See also:

• ARMADA, THE

Armada .

A panic ensued among ppeorry odors the people—the same people who, in the days of Hideyoshi or Iyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter these ships with assured confidence of victory . The contrast did not stop there . The shogun, whose ancestors had administered the country's affairs with absolutely autocratic authority, now summoned a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of the feudatories to consider the situation; and the Imperial court in KiOto, which never appealed for heaven's aid except in a national emergency such as had never been witnessed since the creation of the shogunate, now directed that at the seven principal shrines and at all the great temples special 'H.M.S . " Phaeton." which entered that port in 1808 . the least symptom of predilection for any alien creed exposes a Japanese subject to be punished with awful rigour; any attempt to leave the limits of the realm involves decapitation; not a ship large enough to pass beyond the shadow of the coast may be built . How-ever unwelcome the admission, it is apparent that for all these changes Christian propagandism was responsible . The policy of seclusion adopted by Japan in the early part of the 17th century and resolutely pursued until the middle of the 19th, was anti-Christian, not anti-foreign . The fact cannot be too clearly recognized . It is the chief lesson taught by the events outlined above . Throughout the whole of that period of isolation, Occidentals were not known to the Japanese by any of the terms now in common use, as gwaikoku jin, seiyo See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan, or ijin, which embody the simple meanings ' foreigner, ' Westerner ' or ' alien ' : they were popularly called bateren (padres) . Thus completely had foreign intercourse and Christian propagandism become identified in the eyes of the people . And when it is remembered that foreign intercourse, associated with Christianity, had come to be synonymous in Japanese ears with foreign aggression, with the subversal of the See also:

• MIKADO (Japanese for " exalted gate ")

mikado's ancient dynasty, and with the loss of the in-dependence of the ' country of the gods,' there is no difficulty in under-standing the attitude of the nation's mind towards this question." Foreign Intercourse in Modern Times.—From the middle of the 17th century to the beginning of the 19th, Japan succeeded Dutch and in rigorously enforcing her policy of seclusion .

But Russian in the concluding days of this epoch two influences influence. began to disturb her self-sufficiency . One was the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual infiltration of light from the outer world through the narrow window of the Dutch prison at Deshima; the other, frequent See also:

• APPARITIONS

apparitions of Russian vessels on her northern coasts . The former was a slow process . It materialized first in the study of See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy by a little group of youths who had acquired accidental knowledge of the radical difference between Dutch and Japanese conceptions as to the structure of the human body . The work of these students reads like a page of See also:

• ROMANCE

romance . With-out any appreciable knowledge of the Dutch language, they set themselves to decipher a Dutch medical See also:

• BOOK

book, obtained at enormous cost, and from this small beginning they passed to a vague but firm conviction that their country had fallen far behind the material and intellectual progress of the Occident . They laboured in See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret, for the study of foreign books was then a criminal offence; yet the patriotism of one of their number out-weighed his prudence, and he boldly published a brochure advocating the construction of a navy and predicting a descent by the Russians on the northern See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the empire . Before this prescient man had lain five months in prison, his foresight was verified by events . The Russians simulated at the outset a desire to establish commercial relations by peaceful means . Had the Japanese been better acquainted with the history of nations, they would have known how to interpret the idea of a Russian quest for commercial connexions in the Far East a hundred years ago . But they dealt with the question on its superficial merits, and, after imposing on the See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

tsar's envoys a wearisome delay of several months at Nagasaki, addressed to them a peremptory refusal together with an order to leave that port forthwith . Incensed by such treatment, and by the subsequent imprisonment of a number of their fellow countrymen who had landed on the island of Etorofu in the See also:

• KURILES (Jap. Chishima, " thousand islands ")

Kuriles, the Russians resorted to armed See also:

• REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. reprehendere, to take back)

reprisals .

The Japanese settlements in Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other places were menaced and several Japanese vessels were destroyed . The lesson sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials . They withdrew their veto against the study of foreign books, and they arrived in part at the reluctant conclusion that to offer armed opposition to the coming of foreign ships was a task somewhat beyond Japan's capacity . Japan ceased, however, to attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of the See also:

• NAPOLEONIC

Napoleonic era, and the shogun's government, misinterpreting this See also:

• RESPITE (O. Fr. respit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at)

respite, reverted to their old policy of stalwart resistance to foreign intercourse . Meanwhile another power was beginning to establish close contact with Japan . The whaling industry in Russian waters off American the coast of See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska and in the seas of China and Japan Enterprise. had attracted large investments of American capital and was pursued yearly by thousands of American citizens . In one season 86 of these whaling vessels passed within prayers should be offered for the safety of the land and for the destruction of the aliens . Thus the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the American squadron awoke in the cause of the country as a whole a spirit of patriotism hitherto confined to feudal interests . The shogun does not seem to have had any thought of invoking that spirit: his part in raising it was involuntary and his ministers behaved with perplexed vacillation . The infirmity of the Yedo Administration's purpose presented such a strong contrast to the single-minded resolution of the Imperial court that the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of the one was largely impaired and that of the other correspondingly enhanced . Perry, however, was without authority to support his proposals by any recourse to violence . The See also:

• UNITED

United States government had relied solely on the moral effect of his display of force, and his countrymen had supplied him with a large collection of the products of peaceful progress, from sewing See also:

• MACHINES

machines to miniature railways .

He did not unduly See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press for a treaty, but after lying at anchor off Uraga during a period of ten days and after transmitting the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president's letter to the sovereign of Japan, he steamed away on the 17th of July, announcing his return in the ensuing spring . The conduct of the Japanese subsequently to his departure showed how fully and rapidly they had acquired the conviction that the appliances of their old civilization were powerless to resist the resources of the new . Orders were issued rescinding the long-enforced veto against the construction of sea-going ships; the feudal chiefs were invited to build and arm large vessels; the Dutch were commissioned to furnish a ship of war and to procure from Europe all the best works on modern military science; every one who had acquired any See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert know-ledge through the medium of Deshima was taken into official favour; forts were built; cannon were cast and troops were drilled . But from all this effort there resulted only fresh evidence of the country's inability to defy foreign insistence, and on the 2nd of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1853, instructions were issued that if the Americans returned, they were to be dealt with peacefully . The sight of Perry's See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-propelled ships, their powerful guns and all the specimens they carried of western wonders, had practically broken down the barriers of Japan's isolation without any need of treaties or conventions . Perry returned in the following February, and after an interchange of courtesies and formalities extending over six See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks, obtained a treaty pledging japan to accord kind treatment to shipwrecked sailors; to permit foreign vessels to obtain stores and provisions within her territory, and to allow American ships to anchor in the ports at Shimoda and See also:

• HAKODATE

Hakodate . On this second occasion Perry had 10 ships with crews numbering two thousand, and when he landed to sign the treaty, he was escorted by a guard of honour mustering Soo strong in 27 boats . Much has been written about his judicious display of force and his sagacious tact in dealing with the Japanese, but it may be doubted whether the consequences of his exploit have not invested its methods with extravagant lustre . Standing on the See also:

• THRESHOLD

threshold of modern Japan's wonderful career, his figure shines by the reflected light of its surroundings . Russia, Holland and England speedily secured for themselves treaties similar to that concluded by Commodore Perry in 1854 . First But Japan's doors still remained closed to foreign Treaty of commerce, and it was reserved for another. See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen Commerce, of the great See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic to open them . This was Town-send See also:

• HARRIS, GEORGE, 1ST BARON (1746–1829)
• HARRIS, JAMES (1709-1780)
• HARRIS, JOEL CHANDLER (1848-1908)
• HARRIS, JOHN (c. 1666-1719)
• HARRIS, SIR WILLIAM SNOW
• HARRIS, THOMAS LAKE (1823-1906)
• HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1909)

Harris (1803-1878), the first U.S. See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul-general in Japan .

Arriving in August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following year, a treaty securing to American citizens the privilege of permanent residence at Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of Nagasaki, the right of consular jurisdiction and certain See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor concessions . Still, however, permission for commercial inter-course was withheld, and Harris, convinced that this.great See also:

• GOAL

goal could not be reached unless he made his way to Yedo and con- ferred direct with the shogun's ministers, pressed persistently for leave to do so . Ten months elapsed before he succeeded, and such a display of reluctance on the Japanese side was very unfavourably criticized in the years immediately subsequent . Ignorance of the country's domestic politics inspired the critics . The Yedo administration, already weakened by the growth of a strong public sentiment in favour of abolishing the dual systemof government—that of the mikado in Kioto and that of the shogun in Yedo—had been still further discredited by its own timid policy as compared with the stalwart mien of the throne towards the question of foreign intercourse . Openly to sanction commercial relations at such a time would have been little short of reckless . The Perry See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention and the first Harris convention could be construed, and were purposely construed, as See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere acts of benevolence towards strangers; but a commercial treaty would not have lent itself to any such construction, and naturally the shogun's ministers hesitated to agree to an apparently suicidal step . Harris carried his point, however . He was received by the shogun in Yedo in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1857, and on the 29th of July 1858 a treaty was signed in Yedo, engaging that See also:

• YOKOHAMA

Yokohama should be opened on the 4th of July 1859 and that commerce between the United States and Japan should thereafter be freely carried on there . This treaty was actually concluded by the shogun's Ministers in defiance of their failure tp obtain the sanction of the sovereign in Kioto . Foreign historians have found much to say about Japanese duplicity in concealing the subordinate position occupied by the Yedo administration towards the Kioto court . Such condemnation is not consistent with See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller knowledge .

The Yedo authorities had power to solve all problems of foreign intercourse without reference to See also:

• KIEL

Kiel-to . Iyeyasu had not seen any occasion to seek imperial assent when he granted unrestricted liberty of trade to the representatives of the East India Company, nor had Iyemitsu asked for Kioto's sanction when he issued his decree for the expulsion of all foreigners . If, in the 19th century, Yedo shrank from a responsibility which it had unhesitatingly assumed in the 17th, the cause was to be found, not in the shogun's simulation of autonomy, but in his desire to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate the throne with a policy which, while recognizing it to be unavoidable, he distrusted his own ability to make the nation accept . But his ministers had promised Harris that the treaty should be signed, and they kept their word, at a risk of which the United States' consul-general had no conception . Throughout these negotiations Harris spared no pains to create in the minds of the Japanese an intelligent conviction that the world could no longer be kept at arm's length, and though it is extremely problematical whether he would have succeeded had not the Japanese themselves already arrived at that very conviction, his patient and lucid expositions coupled with a winning See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality undoubtedly produced much impression . He was largely assisted, too, by See also:

• RECENT

recent events in China, where the Peiho forts had been captured and the Chinese forced to sign a treaty at See also:

• TIENTSIN

Tientsin . Harris warned the Japanese that the British fleet might be expected at any moment in Yedo Bay, and that the best way to avert irksome demands at the hands of the English was to establish a comparatively moderate precedent by yielding to America's proposals . This treaty could not be represented, as previous conventions _ had been, in the light of a .purely benevolent concession . It definitely provided for the trade and residence of foreign merchants, and thus finally thEffects e Treaty . erminated the of Japan's traditional isolation . Moreover, it had been concluded in defiance of the Throne's refusal to sanction anything of the kind . Much excitement resulted .

The nation ranged itself into three parties . One comprised the See also:

• ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF

advocates of free intercourse and progressive liberality; another, while insisting that only the most limited privileges should be accorded to aliens, was of two minds as to the advisability of offering armed resistance at once or temporizing so as to gain time for preparation; the third advocated uncompromising seclusion . Once again the shogun convoked a See also:

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