EXPENDITURE  (omitting fractions) See also:

• YEAR

Year . See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

Ordinary Extraordinary See also:

• TOTAL

Total Expenditures Expenditures Expenditures (millions of yen) . (millions of yen) . (millions of yen) . 1878-9 56 5 61 1883–4 68 15 83 1888–9 66 15 81 1893-4 64 20 84 1898–9 119 I01 220 1903–4 170 8o 250 1908-9 427 193 62o It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867 and 1908 . 1 The See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese fiscal year is from See also:

• APRIL

April I to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 31.The See also:

• SOURCES

sources from which See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue is obtained are as follow:—ORDINARY REVENUE 1894-5 . 1898–9 . 1903-4 . 1908-9 . millions millions millions millions of yen. of yen. of yen. of yen . Taxes 70.50 96.20 146.10 299.61 Receipts from stamps 14.75 33.00 96.87 164.66 and Public Under- takings Various Receipts 4.58 3.67 8.15 11.48 It appears from the above that during 15 years the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation increased fourfold . But a correction has to be applied, first, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and, secondly, on account of customs dues, neither of which can properly be called See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general imposts .

The former See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew from 16 millions in 1894–1895 to 72 millions in 1908–1909, and the latter from 5: millions to 411 millions . If these increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called, grew from 70.5 millions in 1894–1895 to 207.86 millions in 1908–1909, an increase of somewhat less than three-See also:

• FOLD

fold . Otherwise stated, the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden per unit of See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population in 1894–1895 was 3s . 6d., whereas in 1908–1909 it was 8s . 4d . To understand the principle of Japanese taxation and the manner in which the above development took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, taxes separately . The See also:

• LAND

land tax is the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal source of revenue . It was originally fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio was reduced to 21%, on which basis the tax yielded Land Tax. from 37 to 38 million yen annually . After the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war with See also:

• CHINA

China (1894–1895) the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government proposed to increase this See also:

• IMPOST (through the O. Fr. from Lat. impositum, a thing laid upon another; the modern French is impot)

impost in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to obtain funds for an extensive See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme of useful public See also:

• WORKS

works and See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded armaments (known subsequently as the first See also:

• POST

post bellum programme ") . By that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market value of agricultural land had largely appreciated owing to improved communications, and See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban land commanded greatly enhanced prices . But the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of the See also:

• DIET

diet, considering itself See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any increase of the tax . Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, and then only on See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition that the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change should not be operative for more than 5 years .

The amended rates were 3.3% on rural lands and 5% on urban See also:

• BUILDING

building sites . Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000 yen, but at the end of the five-year See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period it would have reverted to its old figure, had not war with See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia broken out . An increase was then made so that the impost varied from 3 % to 171 % according to the class of land, and under this new See also:

• SYSTEM

system the tax yielded 85 millions . Thus the exigencies of two See also:

• WARS

wars had augmented it from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907 . The income tax was introduced in 1887 . It was on a graduated See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, varying from 1% on incomes of not less than 300 yen, to 3 % on incomes of 30,000 yen and upwards . At theseinnomeTax. rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of about 2,000,000 yen . In 1899, a revision was effected for the purposes of the first post bellum programme . This revision increased the number of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 yen See also:

• STANDING

standing at the bottom and incomes of 100,000 yen or upwards at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, the minimum and maximum rates being 1% and 51% . The tax now produced approximately 8,000,000 yen . Finally in 1904, when war See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minimum now becoming 2 %, and the maximum 8'2 % . Thus revised, the tax yields a revenue of 27,000,000 yen .

The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China, and the rates have remained unchanged . For the purposes of the tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes, Business and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale and and See also:

• RETAIL

retail), on rental value of buildings, on number of employees and on amount of See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . The yield from the tax grows steadily . It was only 4,500,000 yen in 1897, but it figured at 22,000,000 yen in the budget for 1908-1909 . The above three imposts constitute the only See also:

• DIRECT

direct taxes in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan . Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic liquors . It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly Tax on speaking, in 1878; still further increased thenceforth at intervals of about 3 years, until it is now approximately Licotrs twenty times as heavy as it was originally . The liquor Liquors. taxed is mainly See also:

• SAKE

sake; the See also:

• RATE

rate is about 50 •sen (one See also:

• SHILLING

shilling) per See also:

• GALLON

gallon, and the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual yield is 72,000,000 yen . In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, the customs dues were fixed on a basis of so% ad valorem, but this was almost immediately changed to a nominal 5% and a real 3% . The customs then yielded a very Customs See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty return—not more than three or four million yen —and the Japanese government had no discretionary See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to alter the rates . Strenuous efforts to change this system were at length successful, and, in 1899, the See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff was divided into two sections, conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being governed by a treaty valid for 12 years; those in the latter being fixed at Japan's will . Things remained thus until the war with Russia See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State Revenue .

compelled a revision of the statutory tariff . Under this system the ratio of the duties to the value of the dutiable goods was about 15.65 % . The customs yield a revenue of about 42,000,000 yen . In addition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence Other before the war of 1904–5, and some created for the purpose Taxes . of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post bellum programme . Taxes in existence before 1904–1905: Yield Name . (millions of yen) . Tax on soy 4 Tax on See also:

• SUGAR

sugar 161 See also:

• MINING

Mining tax 2 Tax on bourses 2 Tax on issue of See also:

• BANK

bank-notes 1 See also:

• TONNAGE

Tonnage dues Taxes created on account of the war (1904–5) or in its immediate sequel: Yield Name . (millions of yen) . See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

Consumption tax on textile fabrics 191 Tax on dealers in patent medicines Tax on communications 21 Consumption tax on kerosene 11 See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

Succession tax 11 Also, as shown above, the land tax was increased by 39 millions; the income tax by 19 millions; the business tax by 15 millions; and the tax on alcoholic liquors by 15 millions . On the whole, if taxes of general incidence and those of See also:

• SPECIAL

special incidence be lumped together, it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 yen before the war to 320,000,000 after it . The government of Japan carries on many manufacturing under-takings for purposes of military and See also:

• NAVAL

naval equipment, for See also:

• SHIP

ship- building, for the construction of railway See also:

• ROLLING

rolling stock, State for the manufacture of See also:

• TELEGRAPH (Gr. Tike, far, and rypaq5eiv, to write)

telegraph and See also:

• LIGHT

light-house Monopolies materials, for See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding and See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel-making, for See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing, and maim- for See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper-making and so forth .

There are 48 of these facture' institutions, giving employment to io8,0oo male operatives and 23,000 See also:

• FEMALE

female, together with 63,000 labourers . But the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial results do not appear independently in the general budget . Three other government undertakings, however,constitute important budgetary items: they are, the profits derived from the postal and telegraph services, 39,000,000 yen; secondly, from forests, 13,000,000 yen; and thirdly, from See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways, 37,000,000 yen . The government further exercises a See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of three important staples, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco, See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt and camphor . In each See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the crude See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article is produced by private individuals from whom it is taken over at a See also:

• FAIR

fair See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price by the government, and, having been manufactured (if necessary), it is resold by government agents at fixed prices . The tobacco monopoly yields a profit of some 33,000,000 yen; the salt monopoly a profit of 12,000,000 yen, and the camphor monopoly a profit of I,000,000 yen . Thus the ordinary revenue of the state consisted in 1908–1909 of : Yen . Proceeds of taxes . . 320,000,000 Proceeds of state enterprises (posts and tele- graphs, forests and railways) . 89,000,000 Proceeds of monopolies 56,000,000 Sundries II,000,000 Total 476,000,000 The ordinary expenditures of the nine departments of state aggre- gated—in 1908–1909—427,000,000 yen, so that there was a surplus revenue of 49,000,000 yen . Japanese budgets have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long included an extraordinary See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, so called because it embodies outlays of a special and terminable Extraordinary See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character as distinguished from ordinary and perpetu-Extrartarer. ally recurring expenditures . The items in this extra- ordinary section possessed deep See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the years 1896 and 1907, because they disclosed the special programmes mapped out by Japanese financiers and statesmen after the wars with China and Russia .

Both programmes had the same bases—expansion of armaments and development of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country's material resources . After her war with China, Japan received a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain intimation that she must either fight again after a few years or resign herself to a career of insignificance on the confines of the Far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . No other See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation could be assigned to the See also:

• ACTION

action of Russia, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France in requiring her to retrocede the territory which she had acquired by right of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest . Japan therefore made See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for the doubling of her See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army and her See also:

• NAVY

navy, for the growth of a See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine qualified to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply a sufficiency of See also:

• TROOP (an adaptation of Fr. troupe, O. Fr. trope; cf. Ital. troppa, troppa; Med. Lat. truppus; the origin is doubtful; suggestions have been made that it represents a German conception of Latin turba, crowd, or is an adaptation of Norw. tarp, flock)

troop-See also:

• SHIPS

ships, and for the development of resources which should lighten the burden of these outlays . The war with Russia ensued nine years after these preparations had begun, and Japan emerged victorious . It then seemed to the onlooking nations that she would See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest from her warlike efforts . On the contrary, just as she had behaved after her war with China, so she now behaved after her war with Russia—made arrange-meats to See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double her army and navy and to develop her material resources . The government drafted for the year 1907–1908 a budget with three salient features . First, instead of proceeding to See also:

• DEAL

deal in a leisurely manner with the greatly increased See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, Japan's financiers made dispositions to pay it off completely in the space of years . Secondly, a total outlay of 422,000,000 yen was set down Lr improving and expanding the army and the navy . Thirdly, expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 yen were estimated for productive purposes . All these outlays, included in the extraordinary section of the budget, were spread over a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of years commencing in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements would reach their maximum in the fiscal year 1908–1909 and would thenceforth decline with growing rapidity .

To See also:

• FINANCE

finance this programme three See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, increased taxation, yielding some 3o millions yearly; domestic loans, varying from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary revenue amounting to from 45 to 75 millions . There were also some exceptional and temporary See also:

• ASSETS (from the O. Nor. Fr. assetz, mod. Fr. asset, " enough")

assets: such as 100,000,000 yen remaining over from the war fund; 50 millions paid by Russia for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of her See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in Japan; occasional sales of state properties and so forth . But the backbone of the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above . The house of representatives unanimously approved this See also:

• PRO

pro-gramme . By the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with something like consternation, and a very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short time sufficed to demonstrate its impracticability . From the beginning of 1907 a See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud of commercial and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial depression settled down upon Japan, partly because of so See also:

• COLOSSAL

colossal a programme of taxes and expenditures, and partly owing to excessive See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation during the year 1906 and to unfavourable financial conditions abroad . To See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float domestic loans became a hopeless task, and thus one of the three sources of extraordinary revenue ceased to be available . There remained no alternative but to modify the programme, and this was accomplished by extending the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original period of years so as correspondingly to reduce the annual outlays . The nation, however, as represented by its leading men of affairs, clamoured for still more drastic See also:

• MEASURES

measures, and it became evident that the government must study See also:

• RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchemen.t, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short)

retrenchment, not expansion, eschewing above all things any increase of the country's indebtedness . A change of See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry took place, and the new See also:

• CABINET

cabinet drafted a programme on five bases: first, that all expenditures should be brought within the margin of actual visible revenue, loans being wholly abstained from ; secondly, that the estimates should not include any anticipated surpluses of yearly revenue; thirdly, that appropriations of at least 50,000,000 yen should be annually set aside to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a sinking fund, the whole of the foreign debt being thus extinguished in 27 years; fourthly, that the state railways should be placed in a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate account, all their profits being devoted to extensions and See also:

• REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again)

repairs; and fifthly, that the period for completing the post bellum programme should be extended from 6 years to rt . This scheme had the effect of restoring confidence in the soundness of the national finances . National Debt.—When the fiefs were surrendered to the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign at the beginning of the Meiji era, it was decided to provide for the feudal nobles and the samurai by the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of lump sums in See also:

• COMMUTATION (from Lat. commutare, to change)

commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest on which should constitute a source of income .

The result of this trans-action was that bonds having a total See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face value of 191,500,000 yen were issued, and ready-See also:

• MONEY

money payments were made aggregating 21,250,000 yen.' This was the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Japan's national debt . Indeed, these public bonds may be said to have represented the bulk of the state's liabilities during the first 25 years of the Meiji period . The government had also to take over the debts of the fiefs, amounting to 41,000,000 yen, of which 21,500,000 yen were paid with interest-bearing bonds, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder with ready money . If to the above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating 16,500,000 yen (completely repaid by the year 1897) ; a See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan of 15,000,000 yen incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877, loans of 33,000,000 yen for public works, 13,000,000 yen for naval construction, and 14,500,000 yen 2 in connexion with the fiat currency, we have a total of 305,000,000 yen, being the whole national debt of Japan during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration . The second See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch See also:

• DATES

dates from the war with China in 1894–95 . The direct expenditures on account of the war aggregated 200,000,000 The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what may be called the disestablishment of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . There were 29,805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, and their estates aggregated 354,481 acres, together with 11 million bushels of See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice (representing 2,500,000 yen) . The government resumed See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state of a little less than 2,500,000 yen, paid out in See also:

• PENSIONS

pensions spread over a period of fourteen years . The measure sounds like wholesale See also:

• CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

confiscation . But some extenuation is found in the fact that the temples and shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which, being derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity on the maintenance of See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

feudalism . 2 This sum represents interest-bearing bonds issued in See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange for fiat notes, with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of reducing the See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the latter . It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value .

yen, of which 135,000,000 yen were added to the national debt, the remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue, with a See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• INDEMNITY (through Fr. indemnite, Lat. indemnis, free from damage or loss; in-, negative, and damnum, loss)

indemnity received from China, and with voluntary contributions from patriotic subjects . As the immediate sequel of the war, the government elaborated a large programme of armaments and public works . The expenditure for these unproductive purposes, as well as for See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast fortifications, See also:

• DOCKYARDS

dockyards, and so on, came to 314,000,000 yen, and the total of the productive expenditures included in the programme was 190,000,000 yen—namely, 120 millions for railways, telegraphs and telephones; 20 millions for riparian improvements; 20 millions in aid of industrial and agricultural See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks and so forth—the whole programme thus involving an outlay of 504,000,000 yen . To meet this large figure, the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other assets, furnished 300 millions; and it was decided that the remaining 204 millions should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be carried completely into operation—with trifling exceptions—by the year 1905 . In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain money at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home without paying a high rate of interest . The government, therefore, had recourse to the See also:

• LONDON

London market in 1899, raising a loan of £to,000,000 at 4%, and selling the £See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo bonds at 90 . In 1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further immediate recourse to foreign borrowing . According to her financiers' forecast at that time, her national indebtedness would reach its maximum, namely, 575,000,000 yen, in the year 1903, and would thenceforward diminish steadily . All Japan's domestic loans were by that time placed on a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform basis . They carried 5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years without redemption, and were then to be redeemed within 5o years at latest . The See also:

• TREASURY

treasury had power to expedite the operation of redemption according to financial convenience, but the sum expended on See also:

• AMORTIZATION (derived through the French from Lat. ad, and mortem, to death)

amortization each year must receive the previous consent of the diet . Within the limit of that sum redemption was effected either by purchasing the stock of the loans in the open market or by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing lots to determine the bonds to be paid off .

During the first two periods (1867 to 1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion, consolidation, &c., and to the various requirements of the state's progress, twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were issued; they aggregated 673,215,500 yen; 269,042,198 yen of that total had been paid off at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1897, and the remainder was to be redeemed by 1946, according to these programmes . But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia, and the enormous resulting outlays caused a See also:

• SIGNAL

signal change in the financial situation . Before See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace was restored in the autumn of 1905, Japan had been obliged to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow 405,000,000 yen at home and 1,054,000,000 abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a total debt of 2,276,000,000 yen, of which aggregate her domestic indebtedness stood for 1,11o,000,000 and her foreign borrowings amounted to 1,166,000,000 . This meant that her debt had grown from 561,000,000 yen in 1904 to 2,276,000,000 yen" in 1908; or from 11.3 yen to 43.8 yen per See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the population . Further, out of the See also:

• GRAND

grand total, the sum actually spent on account of war and armaments represented 1,357,000,000 yen . The debt carried interest varying from 4 to 5% . It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grew by 1,700,000,000 yen, in See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, owing to the war with Russia . This added See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation the government resolved to See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge within the space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to approve the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a national debt consolidation fund, which should be kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue and expenditure, and specially applied to payment of interest and redemption of principal . The amount of this fund was never to fall below tto,000,000 yen annually . Immediately after the war, the diet approved a cabinet proposal for the nationalization of 17 private railways, at a cost of 500,000,000 yen, and this brought the state's debts to 2,776,000,000 yen in all . The See also:

• PEOPLE

people becoming impatient of this large burden, a scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for appropriating a sum of at least 50,000,000 yen annually to the purpose of redemption . See also:

• LOCAL

Local Finance.—Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy in matters of finance was fully established .

Under this system the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year of each quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-1890 were as follow: Total Expenditure Year . (millions of yen) . 1889-1890 22 1893–1894 52 1898–1899 97 1903–1904 2 158 1907–1908 167 " In this is included a sum of 110,000,000 yen distributed in the form of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy by way of See also:

• REWARD

reward for their services during the war of 1904–5 . s When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas the expenditures totalled 158,000,000 yen in 1903–1904, they See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to 122,000,000 and 126,000,000 in 1904–1905 and 1905–1906 respectively . Thereafter however, they expanded once more . In the same years the total indebtedness of the corporations was :—Debts Year . (millions of yen) . 189o 1894 10 1899 32 1904 65 1907 89' The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans were applied are as follow: Millions of yen . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education 5 Sanitation 12 See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries 13 Public works 52 Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted indebtedness . The endorsement of the local See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly must be secured; redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue and be completed within 30 years; and, except in the case of very small loans, the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of the See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of home affairs must be obtained . See also:

• WEALTH

Wealth of Japan.—With reference to the wealth of Japan, there is no See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census . So far as can be estimated from See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics for the year 1904–1905, the wealth of Japan proper, excluding See also:

• FORMOSA
• FORMOSA (called Taiwan by the Chinese, and following them by the Japanese, into whose possession it came after their war with China in 1895)

Formosa, See also:

• SAKHALIN, or SAGHALIEN

Sakhalin and some rights in See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria, amounts to about 19,896,000,000 yen, the items of which are as follow: Yen (to yen =£1) .

Lands 12,301,000,000 Buildings 2,331,000,000 See also:

• FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir)

Furniture and fittings 1,o8o,00o,000 Live stock 109,000,000 Railways, telegraphs and telephones . 707,000,000 See also:

• SHIPPING

Shipping . 376,000,000 Merchandise 873,000,000 Specie and See also:

• BULLION

bullion 310,000,000 See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

Miscellaneous 1,809,000,000 Grand total . . . . 19,896,000,000 Education.—T here is no See also:

• ROOM

room to doubt that the literature and learning of China and See also:

• KOREA
• KOREA, or COREA (CH'AO HSIEN, DAI HAN)

Korea were transported to Japan in very See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times, but tradition is the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole authority See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early for current statements that in the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a Education . Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of Japan and another learned See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man from the same country introduced the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature . About the end of the 6th century the Japanese court began to send civilians and religionists direct to China, there to study Confucianism and See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, and among these travellers there were some who passed as much as 25 or 30 years beyond the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . The knowledge acquired by these students was crystallized into a See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• LAWS

laws and ordinances based on the administrative and legal systems of the Sui See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty in China, and in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been established by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Tenchi, followed some 50 years later by the first university . See also:

• NARA

Nara was the site of the latter, and the subjects of study were See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, See also:

• HISTORY

history and See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics . Not until 794, the date of the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer of the capital to See also:

• KIOTO (Kyoto)

Kioto, however, is there any See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of educational organization on a considerable scale . A university was then opened in the capital, with affiliated colleges; and local See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools were built and endowed by See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble families, to whose scions admittance was restricted, but for general education one institution only appears to have been provided . In this Kioto university the curriculum included the Chinese See also:

• CLASSICS

classics, calligraphy, history, law, See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette, See also:

• ARITHMETIC (Gr. apeOµ7run7, sc. TEXVn, the art of counting, from (ipLBµos, number)

arithmetic and See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition; while in the affiliated colleges special subjects were taught, as See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine, herbalism, See also:

• ACUPUNCTURE (from Lat. acus, a needle, and pungere, to prick)

acupuncture, shampooing, See also:

• DIVINATION
• DIVINATION, OMEN, ASTROLOGY

divination, the See also:

• ALMANAC

almanac and See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages .

See also:

• ADMISSION

Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the students aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age; the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty included professors and teachers, who were known by the same titles (hakase and shi) as those applied to their successors to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day; and the government supplied See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food and clothing as well as books . The See also:

• FAMILY

family schools numbered five, and their patrons were the Wage, the Fujiwara, the Tachibana (one school each) and the Minamoto (two) . At the one institution—opened in 828—where youths in general might receive instruction, the course ' This includes 224 millions of loans raised abroad . embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of Buddhism and Confucianism . The above re srospect suggests that Japan, in those early days, borrowed her educational system and its subjects of Comhina- study entirely from China . But closer See also:

• SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrulinium, from scrutari, to search or examine thoroughly)

scrutiny shows tion of that the national See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor was carefully preserved . Native and The ethics of administration required a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination Foreign of two elements, wakon, or the soul of Japan, and See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

Element . kwansai, or the ability of China; so that, while adopt- See also:

• ING

ing from Confucianism the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of filial piety, the Japanese grafted on it a spirit of unswerving See also:

• LOYALTY

loyalty and patriotism; and while accepting See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha's teaching as to three states of existence, they supplemented it by a belief that in the See also:

• LIFE

life beyond the See also:

• GRAVE

grave the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man . See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic importance attached to proficiency in See also:

• LITERARY

literary composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic script, endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely delicate in sense . To be able to compose and indite graceful couplets constituted a See also:

• PASSPORT

passport to high See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office as well as to the favour of great ladies, for See also:

• WOMEN

women vied with men in this accomplishment . The early years of the 1th century saw, grouped about the empress Aki, a See also:

• GALAXY

galaxy of female authors whose writings are still accounted their country's classics—Murasaki no Shikibu, Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights . To the first two Japan owes the Genji monogatari and the Eiga monogalari, respectively, and from the Imperial court of those remote ages she inherited admirable See also:

• MODELS

models of See also:

• PAINTING

painting, calligraphy, See also:

• POETRY

poetry, See also:

• MUSIC

music, See also:

• SONG

song and See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance .

But it is to be observed that all this refinement was limited virtually to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first See also:

• OBJECT

object of education in that era was to See also:

• FIT

fit men for office and for society . Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were rapidly growing to maturity numerous powerful military mag-6dncation nates who despised every form of learning that did in the not contribute to See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial excellence . An illiterate era Middle ensued which reached its See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax with the establish- Ages. went of feudalism at the close of the 12th century . It is recorded that, about that time, only one man out of a force of five thousand could decipher an Imperial See also:

• MANDATE (Mandatum)

mandate addressed to them . Kamakura, then the seat of feudal government, was at first distinguished for See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of all intellectual training, but subsequently the course of See also:

• POLITICAL

political events brought thither from Kioto a number of court nobles whose erudition and refinement acted as a potent See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven . Buddhism, too, had been from the outset a strong educating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . Under its auspices the first great public library was established (1270) at the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple Shomyo-ji in Kanazawa . It is said to have contained practically all the Chinese and Japanese books then existing, and they were open for perusal by every class of reader . To Buddhist priests, also, Japan owed during many years all the machinery she possessed for popular education . They organized schools at the temples scattered about in almost every part of the empire, and at these tera-koya, as they were called, lessons in ethics, calligraphy, See also:

• READING

reading and etiquette were given to the sons of samurai and even to youths of the mercantile and manufacturing classes . When, at the beginning of the 17th century, administrative supremacy fell into the hands of the See also:

• TOKUGAWA

Tokugawa, the illustrious Education founder of that dynasty of shoguns, Iyeyasu, in the pre- showed himself an See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest See also:

• PROMOTER

promoter of erudition . MeliiEra .

He employed a number of priests to make copies of Chinese and Japanese books; he patronized men of learning and he endowed schools . It does not appear to have occurred to him, however, that the spread of knowledge was hampered by a restriction which, emanating originally from the Imperial court in Kioto, forbade any one outside the ranks of the Buddhist priesthood to become a public teacher . To his fifth successor Tsunayoshi (168o-1709) was reserved the See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of abolishing this See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto . Tsunayoshi, whatever his faults, was profoundly attached to literature . By his command a See also:

• POCKET

pocket edition of the Chinese classics was prepared, and the example he himself setin reading and expounding rare books to audiences of feudatories and their vassals produced something like a See also:

• MANIA

mania for erudition, so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers and founding schools . The eighth See also:

• SHOGUN (Japanese for " generalissimo ")

shogun, Yoshimune (1716-1749), was an even more enlightened ruler . He caused a See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography to be compiled and an astronomical See also:

• OBSERVATORY

observatory to be constructed; he revoked the veto on the study of foreign books; he conceived and carried out the idea of imparting moral education through the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of calligraphy by preparing ethical primers whose precepts were embodied in the head-lines of copy-books, and he encouraged private schools . Iyenari (1787-1838), the See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh shogun, and his immediate successor, Iyeyoshi (1838-1853), patronized learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of the latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of True Words, of Great Learning, of Lesser Learning, of Female Ethics and of Women's Filial Piety . Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed steadily throughout the Tokugawa era . From the days of Tsunayoshi the number of See also:

• FIEF

fief schools steadily increased, and as students were admitted See also:

• FREE

free of all charges, a duty of grateful fealty as well as the impulse of interfief competition See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew thither the sons of all samurai . Ultimately the number of such schools See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to over 240, and being supported entirely at the expense of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour to the spirit of the era . From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day scholars, being thereafter admitted as boarders, and twice a year See also:

• EXAMINATIONS

examinations were held in the presence of high officials of the fief .

There were also several private schools where the curriculum consisted chiefly of moral See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, and there were many temple schools, where ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette and, sometimes, commercial matters were taught . A prominent feature of the system was the See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of reverential See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection uniting teacher and student . Before entering school a boy was conducted by his See also:

• FATHER

father or See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder See also:

• BROTHER

brother to the home of his future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher, pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose . Thus the teacher came to be regarded as a See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent, and the veneration paid to him was embodied in a See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept: " Let not a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil tread within three feet of his teacher's See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow." In the case of the temple schools the priestly instructor had full cognisance of each student's domestic circumstances and was guided by that know-ledge in shaping the course of instruction . The universally underlying principle was, " serve the country and be diligent in your respective avocations." Sons of samurai were trained in military arts, and on attaining proficiency many of them travelled about the country, inuring their bodies to every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of hardship and challenging all experts of local fame . Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion pre-vented for a long time all See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the stores of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European know-ledge . Not until the beginning of the 18th century did any authorized account of the great See also:

• WORLD

world of the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West pass into the hands of the people . A celebrated See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar (Arai Hakuseki) then compiled two works—Seiyo kibun (See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

Record of Occidental Hearsay), and Sairan igen (Renderings of Foreign Languages)—which embodied much See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, obtained from Dutch sources, about See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, its conditions and its customs . But of course the light thus furnished had very restricted influence . It was not extinguished, however . Thenceforth men's interest centred more and more on the astronomical, See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical and medical sciences of the West, though such subjects were not included in academical studies until the renewal of foreign intercourse in See also:

• MODERN

modern times . Then (1857), almost immediately, the nation turned to Western learning, as it had turned to Chinese thirteen centuries earlier .

The Tokugawa government established in Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for studying foreign books), where Occidental languages were learned and Occidental works translated . Simultaneously a school for acquiring foreign medical See also:

• ART

art (Seiyo igaku-sho) was opened, and, a little later (1862), the Kaisei-jo (place of liberal culture), a See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college for studying European sciences, was added to the See also