See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

EZEKIEL (SKpm', " See also:

• GOD

God strengthens" or " God is strong "; See also:

• SEPT

Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)  , son of Buzi, one of the most vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers . He was a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest of the See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, probably a member of the dominant See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of Zadok, and doubtless had the See also:

• LITERARY

literary training of the cultivated priesthood of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, including acquaintance with the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical, legal and See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual traditions and with the contemporary See also:

• HISTORY

history and customs of neighbouring peoples . In the See also:

• YEAR

year 597 (being then, probably, not far from See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age) he was carried off to Babylonia by See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar with See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• JEHOIACHIN (Heb. " Yah[weh] establisheth ")

Jehoiachin and a large See also:

• BODY

body of nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it would seem, he spent the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of his See also:

• LIFE

life . His prophecies are dated from this year (" our captivity," xl . 1), except in i . 1, where the meaning of the date " thirtieth year " is obscure; it cannot refer to his age (which would be otherwise expressed in See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew), or to the reform of See also:

• JOSIAH (Heb. yo' shiyydhu, perhaps " Yah [weh] supports ")

Josiah, 621 (which is not else-where employed as an See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch); possibly the reference is to the era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the See also:

• CANON

Canon of See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy), if See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead of 30), a supposition not at all improbable . That the word " thirtieth " is old, appears from the fact that a See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe has added a See also:

• GLOSS, GLOSSARY

gloss (vv . 2, 3) to bring this statement into See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with the usual way of reckoning in the See also:

• BOOK

book: the "thirtieth" year, he explains, is the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin . The exiles dwelt at Tell-abib (" See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill of the See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood "), one of the mounds or ruins made by the See also:

• GREAT

great floods that devastated the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country,' near the " See also:

• RIVER

river " Chebar (Kebar), probably a large See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal not far See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon . Here they had their own lands, and some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government by elders, and appear to have been prosperous and contented; probably the 'only demand made on them by the Babylonian government was the See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of taxes . See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel was married (See also:

• XXIV

xxiv . 18), had his own house, and comported himself quietly as a Babylonian subject .

But he was a profoundly interested observer of affairs at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home and among r The See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian See also:

• TERM

term abubu is used of the great primeval See also:

• DELUGE, THE (through the Fr. from Lat. diluvium, flood, diluere, to wash away)

deluge (in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods See also:

• COMMON

common in the country.the exiles: as patriot and ethical teacher he deplored alike the See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• BLINDNESS

blindness of the Jerusalem government (King See also:

• ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for " righteousness of Yah[weh] ")

Zedekiah revolted in 588) and the immorality and religious superficiality and See also:

• APOSTASY (aaoafiavis, in classical Greek a defection or revolt from a military commander)

apostasy of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . He, like See also:

• JEREMIAH

Jeremiah, was friendly to Nebuchadrezzar, regarding him as Yahweh's See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument for the chastisement of the nation . Convinced that opposition to Babylonian See also:

• RULE

rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical events, in the manner of the times, as indications of the See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper of the deity, he held that the imminent political destruction of the nation was See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof of Yahweh's anger with the people on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their moral and religious depravity; Jerusalem was hopelessly corrupt and must be destroyed (xxiv.) . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, he was equally convinced that, as his predecessors had taught (Hos. xi . 8, 9; Isa. vii . 3 al.), Yahweh's love for his people would not suffer them to perish utterly—a remnant would be saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles in Babylonia, a little See also:

• BAND

band plucked from the burning and kept safe in a See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• LAND

land till the wrath should have passed (xi . 14 ff.) . This conception of the exiles as the See also:

• KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " corn," seed, grain)

kernel of the restored nation he further set forth in the great See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision of ch. i., in which Yahweh is represented as leaving Jerusalem and See also:

• CORNING
• CORNING, ERASTUS (1794-1872)

corning to take up his See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode among them in Babylonia for a time, intending, however, to return to his own city (xvii . 7) . This, then, was Ezekiel's political creed—destruction of Jerusalem and its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and mean-time submission to Babylon . His See also:

• ARRAIGNMENT (from Lat. ad, to, and rationare, to reason, call to account)

arraignment of the Judeans is violent, almost See also:

• MALIGNANT (Lat. malignus, evil-disposed, from maligenus)

malignant (vi. xvi. al.) . The well-meaning but weak king Zedekiah he denounces with See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter scorn as a perjured traitor (xvii) .

He does not discuss the possibility of successful resistance to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes that the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt is foolish and wicked, and, like other prophets, he identifies his political See also:

• PROGRAMME, or PROGRAM

programme with the will of See also:

• GOD

God . Probably his See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of the situation was correct; yet, in view of See also:

• SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib's failure at Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city, the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly unfounded, and in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case their patriotism (like that of the national party in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege) was not unworthy of admiration . The See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet's predictions of disaster continued, according to the See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record, up to the investment of the city by the Chaldean See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army in 588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the city (586) his See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone changed to one of See also:

• CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lat. consolatio, from consolari, to assuage, comfort, console)

consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.)—the destruction of the wicked See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass accomplished, he turned to the task of reconstruction . He describes the safe and happy See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the people in their own land, and gives a See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of a new constitution, of which the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main point is the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of public See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion by the priest-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood (xl.-xlviii.) . The discourses of the first See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine them-selves to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical and religious material . The picture given of Jerusalemke morals is an appalling one . Society is described as honeycombed with crimes and vices; prophets, priests, princes and the people generally are said to practise unblushingly See also:

• EXTORTION (Lat. extorsio, from extorquere, to twist out, to take away by force)

extortion, oppression, See also:

• MURDER

murder, falsehood, See also:

• ADULTERY (from Lat. adulterium)

adultery (xxii.) . This description is doubtless exaggerated . It may be assumed that the social corruption in Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy communities, made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest and the weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah . No such charges are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whose See also:

• SIMPLE

simple life, indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagrant violation of See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . Ezekiel's own moral See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code is that of the prophets, which insists on the practice of the fundamental civic virtues . He puts ritual offences, however, in the same See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category with offences against the moral law, and he does not distinguish between immorality and practices that are survivals of old recognized customs: in ch. xxii. he mentions "eating with the See also:

• BLOOD

blood "2 along with murder, and failure to observe ritual regulations along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow; the old customary law permitted See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage with a See also:

• HALF

half-See also:

• SISTER

sister (See also:

• FATHER

father's daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father's wife (Gen .

XX . 12, xxxviii . 26; 2 Sam. xvi . 21, 22), but the more refined 2 So we must read (as See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith has pointed out) in xxii . 9 and xviii . 6, instead of " eating on the mountains." feeling of the later time frowned on the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom, and Ezekiel treats it as adultery.' However, notwithstanding the insistence on ritual, natural in a priest, his moral See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard is high; following the See also:

• PRESCRIPTION

prescription of Ex. xxii . 21 [201 he regards oppression of See also:

• RESIDENT

resident aliens (a class that had not then received full See also:

• CIVIL

civil rights) as a See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime (xxii . 7), and in his new constitution (xlvii . 22, 23) gives them equal rights with the homeborn . His strongest denunciation is directed against the religious practices of the time in Judea—the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of the Canaanite local deities (the Baals), the Phoenician Tammuz, and the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and other Babylonian and Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., See also:

• XXIII

xxiii.); he maintained vigorously the prophetic struggle for the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole worship of Yahweh . Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he does not See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express himself clearly on this point; in any case he held that the worship of other deities was destructive to See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel . His conception of Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low .

On the one hand, he regards him as supreme in See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, controlling the destinies of Babylonia and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt as well as those of Israel, and as inflexibly just in dealing with See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary offences against morality . But he conceives of him, on' the other hand, as limited locally and morally—as having his See also:

• SPECIAL

special abode in the Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite people, and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests of Israel . The bitter invectives against See also:

• AMMON
• AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766—185o)

Ammon, See also:

• MOAB

Moab, See also:

• EDOM

Edom, Philistia, See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh's mouth, are based wholly on the fact that these peoples are regarded as hostile and hurtful to Israel; Babylonia, though nowise See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to Egypt morally, is favoured and applauded because it is believed to be the instrument for securing ultimately the prosperity of Yahweh's people . The See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the affairs of the See also:

• WORLD

world by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as determined not by ethical considerations but by See also:

• PERSONAL

personal preferences . There is no hint in Ezekiel's writings of the grandiose conception of Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel's See also:

• MISSION

mission is to give the knowledge of religious truth to the other nations of the world; he goes so far as to say that Yahweh's See also:

• OBJECT

object in restoring the fortunes of Israel is to establish his reputation among the nations as a powerful deity (See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . 20-23, See also:

• XXXVII

xxxvii . 28, xxxix . 23) . The prophet regards Yahweh's administrative control as immediate: he introduces no angels or other subordinate supernatural agents—the cherubs and the " men " of ix . 2 and xl . 3 are merely imaginative symbols or representations of divine activity . His high conception of God's transcendence, it may be supposed, led him to ignore intermediary agencies, which are common in the popular literature, and later, under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of this same conception of transcendence, are freely employed .

The relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of Jeremiah is not clear . They have so much in common that they must have See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the same current bodies of thought, or there must have been borrowing in one direction or the other . In one point, however,—the attitude toward the ritual—the two men differ radically . The finer mind of the nation, represented mainly by the prophets from See also:

• AMOS
• AMOS, SHELDON (1835–1886)

Amos onward, had denounced unsparingly the superficial non-moral popular cult . The struggle between ethical religion and the current worship became acute toward the end of the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . There were two possible solutions of the difficulty . The ritual books of our See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch were not then in existence, and the sacrificial cult might be treated with contempt as not authoritative . This is the course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires only obedience (Jer. vii . 21 ff.) . On the other hand the better party among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary, might undertake to moralize it; of such a See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, begun by See also:

• DEUTERONOMY

Deuteronomy, Ezekiel is the most eminent representative . Priest and prophet, he sought to unify the national religious consciousness by preserving the sacrificial cult, discarding its abuses and vitalizing it ethically . The event showed that he judged the situation rightly—the religious See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme announced by him, 'though not accepted in all its details, became the dominant policy of the later time, and he has been justly called ' The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviii .

8-i5, xx . I 1 if." the father of Judaism." He speaks as a legislator, citing no authority; but he formulates, doubtless, the ideas and perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem priesthood . His ritual code (xliii.-xlvi.), which in elaborateness stands midway between that of Deuteronomy and that of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle books of the Pentateuch (resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-See also:

• XXVI

xxvi.) shows See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good judgment . Its most noteworthy features are two . Certain priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by him as " See also:

• LEVITES

Levites ") he deprives of priestly functions, degrading them to the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of temple menials; and he takes from the civil ruler all authority over public religion, permitting him merely to furnish material for sacrifices . He is, however, much more than a ritual reformer . He is the first to express clearly the conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its religion from all others, the See also:

• GUARDIAN

guardian of divine law and the abode of divine See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

majesty . This See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of God he conceives of as moral: Yahweh is to put his own spirit into the people,2 creating in them a disposition to obey his commandments, which are moral as well as ritual (xxxvi . 26, 27) . The conception of a sacred nation controlled the whole succeeding Jewish development; if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel, its intensity saved the Jewish religion to the world . See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

Text and Authorship.—The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel is not in good See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition—it is full of scribal inaccuracies and additions . Many of the errors may be corrected with the aid of the See also:

• SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. of 0', Lat. LXX.)

Septuagint (e.g. the 430—390+4°—of iv .

5, 6 is to be changed to 190), and none of them affect the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general thought . The substantial genuineness of the discourses is now accepted by the great body of critics . The Talmudic tradition (Baba Bathra 14b) that the men of the Great See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

Synagogue " wrote " Ezekiel, may refer to editorial See also:

• WORK

work by later scholars.3 There is no validity in the objections of See also:

• ZUNZ, LEOPOLD (1794-1886)

Zunz (Gottesdienstl . Vortr.) that the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xii . 12 f.) is non-Prophetic, and that the See also:

• DRAWING

drawing-up of a new constitution soon after the destruction of the city and the mention of See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

Noah, See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel, See also:

• JOB

Job and See also:

• PERSIA

Persia are improbable . The prediction in question was doubtless added by Ezekiel after the event; the code belongs precisely in his time, and the constitution was natural for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old legendary Hebrew figures; and it is not probable that the prophet's " Paras " is our " Persia." See also:

• HAVET, EUGENE AUGUSTE ERNEST (1813-1889)
• HAVET, JULIEN (PIERRE EUGLNE) (1853-1893)

Havet's contention (in La Modernite See also:

• DES

des prophetes) that See also:

• GOG (possibly connected with the Gentilic Gagaya, " of the land of Gag," used in Amarna Letters i. 38, as a synonym for " barbarian," or with Ass. Gagu, a ruler of the land of Sahi, N. of Assyria, or with Gyges, Ass. Gugu, a king of Lydia)

Gog represents the Parthians (40 B.c.) has little or nothing in its support . There are additions made See also:

• POST

post eventum, as in the case mentioned above and in See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 17-20, and the description of the See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce of Tyre (See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 9b-25a), which interrupts the comparison of the city to a See also:

• SHIP

ship, looks like an insertion whether by the prophet or by some other; but there is no good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt that the book is substantially the work of Ezekiel . Ezekiel's See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style is generally impetuous and vigorous, somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses (xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation of details, and is a See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of invective; he is fond of symbolic pictures, See also:

• PROVERBS, BOOK OF (Heb. Mishle Slzelomoh, " Proverbs of Solomon," abridged by the later Jews to Mishle; Septuagint, irapotpiai or II. EaX.; Lat. Vulg. Parabolae sal. and Liber proverbiorum)

proverbs and allegories; his " visions " are elaborate literary productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than those of any preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in the form of a book, ii . 9), and in their See also:

• PRESENT

present shape were hardly pronounced in public—a fact that seems to be hinted at in the statement that he was " dumb " till the fall of Jerusalem (iii.26, xxxiii . 22); in private interviews the people did not take him seriously (xxxiii .

30-33) . His book was accepted See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as See also:

• PART

part of the sacred literature: See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben-Sira (c . 18o B.C.) mentions him along with See also:

• ISAIAH
• ISAIAH, ASCENSION OF

Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xlix . 8) ; he is not quoted directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is employed largely in the See also:

• APOCALYPSE
• APOCALYPSE (Gr. aaoKaXvti/hr, disclosure)
• APOCALYPSE, KNIGHTS OF THE

Apocalypse and elsewhere . His divergencies from the Pentateuchal code gave rise to serious doubts, but, after prolonged study, the discrepancies were explained, and the book was finally canonized (Shab . 13b) . According to 2 Yahweh's spirit, thought of as Yahweh's vital principle, as See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's spirit is man's vital principle, is to be breathed into them, as, in Gen. ii . 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body . The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may come or be poured out on men . 2 The " Great Synagogue " is semi-mythical . See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome (See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

Preface to See also:

• COMM

Comm. on Ezek.) the Jewish youth were forbidden to read the mysterious first See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter (called the markaba, the " See also:

• CHARIOT (derived from an O. Fr. word, formed from char, a car)

chariot ") and the concluding See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section (xl.-xlviii.) till they reached the age of thirty years . The book divides itself naturally into three parts: the arraignment of Jerusalem (i.-xxiv.); denunciation of foreign enemies (See also:

• XXV

xxv.-xxxii.) ; consolatory construction of the future (xxxiii.-See also:

• XXVIII

xxviii.) .

The opening " vision " (i.), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the nature of a general preface, and was composed probably See also:

• LATE

late in the prophet's life . Out of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north (the Babylonian sacred See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain) comes a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud, wherein appear four Creatures (formed on the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of Babylonian composite figures), each with four faces (man, See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull, See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle) and attended by a See also:

• WHEEL (0. Eng. hweol, hweohl, &c., cognate with Icel. hjol, Dan. hiul, the Indo-European root is seen in Sanskrit chakra, Gr. r in Aos, circle, whence " cycle ")
• WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE

wheel; the wheels are full of eyes, and move straight forward, impelled by the spirit dwelling in the Creatures (the spirit of Yahweh) . Supported on their heads is something like a crystalline See also:

• FIRMAMENT

firmament, above which is a form like a See also:

• SAPPHIRE

sapphire See also:

• THRONE

throne (cf . Ex. xxiv . 1o), and on the throne a man-like form (Yahweh) surrounded by a See also:

• RAINBOW

rainbow brightness . The wheels symbolize divine omniscience and control, and the whole vision represents the coming of Yahweh to take up his abode among the exiles . The prophet then receives his See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call (ii., iii.) in the shape of a See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll of a book, which he is required to eat (an indication of the literary form now taken by prophecy) . He is informed that the people to whom he is sent are rebellious and stiff-necked (this indicates his See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of the people, and gives the keynote of the following discourses) ; he is appointed watchman to warn men when they See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin, and is to be held responsible for the consequences if he fail in this See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty . To this high conception of a preacher's See also:

• FUNCTION

function the prophet was faithful throughout his career . Next follow minatory discourses (iv.-vii.) predicting the siege and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Jerusalem—perhaps revised after the event . There are several symbolic acts descriptive of the siege . One of these (iv .

4 ff.) gives the duration of the national See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment in loose chronological reckoning: 40 years (a See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round number) for See also:

• JUDAH

Judah, and 150 more (according to the corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point, probably, being the year 722, the date of the capture of See also:

• SAMARIA

Samaria ; the See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure described in v . 8 is not to be understood literally . In vi, the See also:

• IDOLATRY

idolatry of the nation is pictured in darkest See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours . Next follows (viii.-xi.) a detailed description, in the form of a vision, of the sin of Jerusalem: within the temple-See also:

• AREA

area elders and others are worshipping beast forms, Tammuz and the sun (probably actual cults of the time) ; i men approach to See also:

• DEFILE

defile the temple and slay the inhabitants of the city (ix.) . In ch. x. the imagery of ch. i. reappears, and the Creatures are identified with the cherubs of See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon's temple . This appears to be an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent form of the vision, which has been brought into connexion with that of i. by a harmonizing editor . There follow a symbolic prediction of the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile (xii.) and a denunciation of non-moral prophets and ptophetesses (xiii.)—though Yahweh deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult him will be punished ; and so corrupt is the nation that the presence of a few eminently good men will not See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save it (xiv.).' After a comparison of Israel to a worthless See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• VINE

vine (xv.) come two allegories, one portraying idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful See also:

• SPOUSE, (O. Fr. espous, mod. epoux, espouse, epouse, Lat. sponsus, sponsa, a betrothed or promised man or woman, from spondere, to promise)

spouse of Yahweh (xvi.), the other describing the See also:

• FATE

fate of Zedekiah (xvii.) . The See also:

• FINE

fine insistence on individual moral responsibility in xviii . (cf . Deut. xxiv . 16, Jer. xxxi . 29 f.), while it is a protest against a superficial current view, is not to be understood as a denial of all moral relations between successive generations .

This latter question had not presented itself to the prophet's mind; his object was simply to correct the opinion of the people that their present misfortunes were due not to their own faults but to those of their predecessors . A more sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies (xix.), one on the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, the other on the nation . These are followed by a scathing sketch of Israel's religious career (xx . 1-26), in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets, it is declared that the nation had always been disobedient . From this point to the end of xxiv. there is a mingling of See also:

• THREAT

threat and promise.' The See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except that in the latter Samaria is relatively treated with favour, while in the former it (Aholah) is involved in the same condemnation as that of Jerusalem . At this point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of discourses directed against foreign nations . The description of the king of Tyre (xxviii . 11-19) as dwelling in See also:

• EDEN
• EDEN, SIR ASHLEY (1831-1887)

Eden, the See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

garden of God, the sacred mountain, under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the cherub, bears a curious resemblance to the narrative in Gen. ii., iii., of which, however, it seems to be in-dependent, using different Babylonian material; the text is corrupt . The section dealing with Egypt is one of remarkable imaginative power and rhetorical vigour: the king of Egypt is compared to a magnificent See also:

• CEDAR (Lat. cedrus, Gr. iapos)

cedar of See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon (in xxxi . 3 read : " there was a cedar in Lebanon and to the See also:

• DRAGON (Fr. dragon, through Lat. draco, from the Greek; connected with SEpeoµay " see," and interpreted as " sharp-sighted "; O.H. Ger. tracho, dracho, M.H.G. trache, Mod. Ger. Drachen; A.S. draca, hence the equivalent English form " drake," " fire-drake,

dragon of the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile, and the picture of his In viii . 17 the unintelligible expression " they put the See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch to their See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose " is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text; a probable emendation is: " they are sending a stench to my nostrils." s The legendary figure of Daniel (xiv . 14) is later taken by the author of the book of Daniel as his See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero .

3 For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. to, II, see the See also:

• ENGLISH

English Ezekiel in See also:

• HAUPT, MORITZ (1808—1874)

Haupt's Sacred Books.descent into Sheol is intensely tragic . Whether these discourses were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and its fall, or were here inserted by Ezekiel or by a scribe, it is not possible to say . In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is described at length (expansion of the description in iii.) and the See also:

• NEWS

news of the capture of the city is received . The following chapters (xxxiv.-xxxix.) are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested enemy of Israel, is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from the dead, with North and South See also:

• UNITED

united (xxxvii.), is to be established under a Davidide king; a final See also:

• ASSAULT (from Lat. ad, to or on, and saltare, to leap)

assault, made by Gog, is to be successfully met,' and then the people are to dwell in their own land in See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace for ever; this Gog section is regarded by some as the beginning of Jewish apocalyptic See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing, In the last section (xl.-xlviii.), put as a vision, the temple is to be rebuilt, in dimensions and arrangements a See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of the temple of Solomon (cf . I Kings vi., vii.), the sacrifices and festivals and the functions of priests and See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince are prescribed, a stream issuing from under the temple is to vivify the Dead See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and fertilize the land (this is meant literally), the land is divided into parallel strips and assigned to the tribes . The prophet's thought is summed up in the name of the city: Yahweh Shammah, " Yahweh is there," God dwelling for ever in the midst of his people .