See also:

• FALLACY (Lat. fall-ax, apt to mislead)

FALLACY (See also:

• LAT

Lat. fall-ax, See also:

• APT

apt to mislead)  , the See also:

• TERM

term given generally to any mistaken statement used in See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument; in See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

Logic, technically, an argument which violates the See also:

• LAWS

laws of correct demonstration . An argument may be fallacious in Natter (i.e, misstatement of facts), in wording (i.e. wrong use of I 5 3 words), or in the See also:

• PROCESS

process of inference . Fallacies have, therefore, been classified as: I . Material, IL Verbal, III . Logical or Formal; II. and III. are often included under the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general description Logical, and in scholastic phraseology, following See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle, are called fallacies in dictione or in voce, as opposed to material fallacies in re or extra dictionem . , I . Material.—The. See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification widely adopted by See also:

• MODERN

modern logicians and based on that of Aristotle, See also:

• ORGANON (Gr. 6pyavov, instrument, from Epyov, work)

Organon (Sophistici elenchi), is as follows:—(r) See also:

• FALLACY (Lat. fall-ax, apt to mislead)

Fallacy of See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

Accident, i.e. arguing erroneously from a general See also:

• RULE

rule to a particular See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, without proper regard to particular conditions which vitiate the application of the general rule; e.g. if manhood See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage be the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, arguing that a criminal or a lunatic must, therefore, have a See also:

• VOTE

vote; (2) Converse Fallacy of Accident, i.e. arguing from a See also:

• SPECIAL

special case to a general rule; (3) Irrelevant Conclusion, or Ignoratio Elenchi, wherein, instead of proving the fact in dispute, the arguer seeks to gain his point by diverting See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to some extraneous fact (as in the legal See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of " No case . Abuse the See also:

• PLAINTIFF

plaintiff's See also:

• ATTORNEY (from O. Fr. atorne, a person appointed to act for another, from atourner, legal Lat. attornare, attorn, literally to turn over to another or commit business to another)

attorney ") . Under this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head come the so-called argumentum (a) ad hominem, (b) ad populum, (c) ad baculum, (d) ad verecundiam, See also:

• COMMON

common in See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory, in which the See also:

• SPEAKER

speaker obscures the real issue by appealing to his See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience on the grounds of (a) purely See also:

• PERSONAL

personal considerations, (b) popular sentiment, (c) fear, (d) conventional propriety . This fallacy has been illustrated by ethical or theological arguments wherein the fear of See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment is subtly substituted for abstract right as the See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction of moral See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation . (4) "Petitio principii (begging the question) or Circulus in probando (arguing in a circle), which consists in demonstrating a conclusion by means of premises which pre-suppose that conclusion . See also:

• JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

Jeremy See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham points out that this fallacy may lurk in a single word, especially in an epithet, e.g. if a measure were condemned simply on the ground that it is alleged to be " un-See also:

• ENGLISH

English "; (5) Fallacy of the Consequent, really a See also:

• SPECIES

species of (3), wherein a conclusion, is See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from premises which do not really support it; (6) Fallacy of False Cause, or Non Sequitur( it does not follow "), wherein one thing is in-correctly assumed as the cause of another, as when the ancients attributed a public calamity to a meteorological phenomenon; (7) Fallacy of Many Questions (Plurium Interrogationum), wherein several questions are improperly grouped in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of one, and a See also:

• DIRECT

direct categorical See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer is demanded, e.g. if a prosecuting counsel asked the prisoner " What See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time was it when you met this See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man ?

" with the intention of eliciting the tacit See also:

• ADMISSION

admission that such a See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting had taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . II . Verbal Fallacies are those in which a false conclusion is obtained by improper or ambiguous use of words . They are generally classified as follows . (1) Equivocation consists in employing the same word in two or more senses, e.g. in a See also:

• SYLLOGISM (Gr. ovAAoytvµos, from en', and Xb-yor, an argument resulting from combination, i.e. of premises)

syllogism, the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle term being used in one sense in the See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major and another in the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor premise, so that in fact there are four not three terms (" All See also:

• FAIR

fair things are See also:

• HONOURABLE (Fr. honorable, from Lat. honorabilis, worthy of honour)

honourable; This woman is fair; therefore this woman is honourable," the second " fair " being in reference to complexion)•.., (2) See also:

• AMPHIBOLOGY

Amphibology is the result of See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

ambiguity of grammatical structure, e.g. of the position of the adverb " only " in careless writers (" Be only said that," in which See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence, as experience shows, the adverb has been intended to qualify any one of the other three words) . (3) See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

Composition, a species of (I), which results from the confused use of collective terms (" The angles of a triangle are less than two right angles " might refer to the angles separately or added together) . (4) See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

Division, the converse ,of the preceding, which consists in employing the middle term distributively in the minor and collectively in the major premise . (5) See also:

• ACCENT

Accent, which occurs only in speaking and consists of emphasizing the wrong word in a sentence (" He is a fairly See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good pianist," according to the emphasis on the words, may imply praise of a beginner's progress, or an See also:

• EXPERT (Lat. expertus, from experiri, to try)

expert's depreciation of a popular See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero, or it may imply that the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person in question is a deplorable violinist) . (6) Figure of Speech, the confusion between the metaphorical and See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary uses of a word or phrase . (a) fallacy of Four Terms (Qualernio terminorum); (b) of Undistributed Middle; (c) of Illicit process of the major or the minor term; (d) of Negative Premises . Of other classifications of Fallacies in general the most famous are those of See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon and J . S .

See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill . Bacon (Novum organum, Aph . 33, 38 sqq.) divided fallacies into four Idola (Idols, i.e . False Appearances), which summarize the various kinds of mistakes to which the human See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect is prone (see BACON, FRANCIS) . With these should be compared the Offendicula of See also:

• ROGER (d. 1139)
• ROGER (d. 1181)

Roger Bacon, contained in the See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

Opus maius, pt. i . (see BACON, ROGER) . J . S . Mill discussed the subject in See also:

• BOOK

book v. of his Logic, and Jeremy Bentham's Book of Fallacies (1824) contains valuable remarks . See Rd . Whateley's Logic, bk. v.; A. de See also:

• MORGAN
• MORGAN, DANIEL (1736-1802)
• MORGAN, EDWIN DENNISON (1811-1883)
• MORGAN, JOHN HUNT (1825-1864)
• MORGAN, JOHN PIERPONT (1837–1913)
• MORGAN, LEWIS HENRY (1818-1881)
• MORGAN, SYDNEY, LADY (c. 1783-1859)
• MORGAN, THOMAS (d. 1743)

Morgan, Formal Logic (1847) ; A . See also:

• SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900)

Sidgwick, Fallacies (1883) and other See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books .

See also See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article Logic, and for fallacies of See also:

• INDUCTION (from Lat. inducere, to lead into; cf. Gr. ilrayu yli)

Induction, see INDUCTION .