See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

FASTING (from " fast," derived from old See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• LAT

Lat. jejunare)  , an See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act which is most accurately defined as an abstention from See also:

• MEAT

meat, drink and all natural See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food for a determined See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . So it is defined by the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, in the 16th See also:

• HOMILY

homily, on the authority of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of See also:

• CHALCEDON
• CHALCEDON, COUNCIL OF

Chalcedon' and of the See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive church generally . In a looser sense the word is employed to denote See also:

• ABSTINENCE (from Lat. abstinere, to abstain)

abstinence from certain kinds of food merely; and this meaning, which in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary usage is probably the more prevalent, seems also to be at least tolerated by the Church of England when it speaks of " fast or abstinence days," as if See also:

• FASTING (from " fast," derived from old Teutonic fastejan; synonyms being the Gr. vnorebety, late Lat. jejunare)

fasting and abstinence were synonymous.' More vaguely still, the word is occasionally used as an See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent for moral self-See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint generally . This secondary and metaphorical sense (VnvreUesV Kaebrnros) occurs in one of the fragments of See also:

• EMPEDOCLES (c. 490–430 B.C.)

Empedocles . For the See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology of fasting, see See also:

• DIETETICS

DIETETICS; See also:

• NUTRITION

NUTRITION; also See also:

• CORPULENCE (Lat. corpus, body), or OBESITY (Lat. ob, against, and edere, to eat)

CORPULENCE . See also:

• STARVATION

Starvation itself (see also See also:

• HUNGER

HUNGER AND THIRST) iS of the nature of a disease which may be prevented by See also:

• DIET

diet; nevertheless there are connected with it a few peculiarities of scientific and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• INTEREST

interest . "Inedia," as it is called in the nomenclature of diseases by the See also:

• LONDON

London See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College of Physicians, is of two kinds, arising from want of food and from want' of See also:

• WATER

water . When entirely deprived of nutriment the human See also:

• BODY

body is ordinarily capable of supporting See also:

• LIFE

life under ordinary circumstances for little more than a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week . In the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1869 this was tried on the See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person of a " fasting girl " in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• WALES (Cymru, Gwalia, Cambria)

Wales . The parents made a show of their See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child, decking her out like a See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride on a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed, and asserting that she had eaten no food for two years . Some reckless enthusiasts for truth set four trustworthy See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital nurses to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch her; the See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic obstinacy of the parents was roused, and in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of their imposture they allowed See also:

• DEATH

death to take See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in eight. days . Their trial and conviction for See also:

• MANSLAUGHTER (0. Eng., mannslaeht, from mann, man, and slaeht, act of slaying, sledn, to slay, properly to smite; cf. Ger. schlagen, Schlacht, battle)

manslaughter may be found in the daily See also:

• PERIODICALS

periodicals of the date; but, See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange to say, the experimental physiologists and nurses escaped See also:

• SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232)

scot-See also:

• FREE

free .

There is no doubt that in this instance the unnatural quietude, the See also:

• GRAVE

grave-like silence, and the dim religious See also:

• LIGHT

light in which the victim was kept contributed to deter death . One thing which remarkably prolongs life is a See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of water . 1 " The Fathers assembled there ... decreed in that council that every person, as well in his private as public fast, should continue all the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day without meat and drink, till after the evening See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer . And whosoever did eat or drink before the evening prayer was ended should be accounted and reputed not to consider the purity of his fast . This See also:

• CANON

canon teacheth so evidently how fasting was used in the primitive church as by words it cannot be more plainly expressed " (Of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good See also:

• WORKS

Works; and first, of Fasting.) 2 As indeed they are, etymologically; but, See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation, a conventional distinction between abstinentia and jejunium naturale had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been recognized . Exceptio eduliorum quorundam portionale jejunium est " (See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian) . R 7Dogs furnished with as much as they wished to drink were found by M . Chossat (Sur l'inanition, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1843) to live three times as long as those who were deprived of solids and liquids at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . Even wetting the skin with See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-water has been found useful by shipwrecked sailors . Four men and a boy of fourteen who got shut in the Tynewydd mine near Porth, in South Wales, in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter of 1876–1877 for ten days without food, were not only alive when released, but several of them were able to walk, and all subsequently recovered . The thorough saturation of the narrow space with aqueous vapour, and the presence of drain water in the cutting, were probably their See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief preservatives—assisted by the high even temperature always found in the deeper headings of See also:

• COAL

coal mines, and by the enormous See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression of the confined See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air . This doubtless prevented evaporation, and retarded vital processes dependent upon oxidation .

The See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of carbonic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid in the breathed air would also have a similar arrestive See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power over destructive assimilation . These prisoners do not seem to have See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt any of the severer pangs of hunger, for they were not tempted to eat their candles . With the instinctive feeling that darkness adds a horror to death, they preferred to use them for light . At the See also:

• WRECK

wreck of the " See also:

• MEDUSA

Medusa See also:

• FRIGATE

frigate in 1816, fifteen See also:

• PEOPLE

people survived on a raft for thirteen days without food . It is a paradoxical fact, that the supply of the See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach even from the substance of the starving individual's body should tend to prolong life . In See also:

• APRIL

April 1874 a See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case was recorded of exposure in an open See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat for 32 days of three men and two boys, with only ten days' provisions, exclusive of old boots and jelly-See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish . They had a fight in their See also:

• DELIRIUM (a Latin medical term for madness, from delirare, to be mad, literally to wander from the lira, or furrow)

delirium, and one was severely wounded . As the See also:

• BLOOD

blood gushed out he lapped it up; and instead of suffering the fatal weakness which might have been expected from the See also:

• HAEMORRHAGE (Gr. atµa, blood, and prryvvvac, to burst)

haemorrhage, he seems to have done well . Experiments were performed by a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French physiologist, M . Anselmier (Archives gen. de medecine, 186o, vol. i. p . 169), with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of trying to preserve the lives of See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs by what he calls " artificial autophagy." He fed them on the blood taken from their own See also:

• VEINS

veins daily, depriving them of all other food, and he found that the fatal cooling incident to starvation was'thus postponed, and existence prolonged . Life lasted till the emaciation had proceeded to six-tenths of the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal's See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, as in Chossat's experiments, extending to the fourteenth day, instead of ending on the tenth day, as was the case with other dogs which were not bled .

Various people have tried, generally for See also:

• EXHIBITION

exhibition purposes, how long they could fast from food with the aid merely of water or some medicinal preparation; but these exhibitions cannot be held to have proved anything of importance . A See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man named Jacques in this way fasted at See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty days in 1888, and in London for See also:

• FORTY

forty-two days in 189o, and for fifty days in 1891; and an See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian named Succi fasted for forty days in 18go . Religious Fasts.—Fasting is of See also:

• SPECIAL

special interest when considered as a discipline voluntarily submitted to for moral and religious ends . As such it is very widely diffused . Its modes and motives vary considerably according to See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, See also:

• RACE

race, See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization and other circumstances; but it would be difficult to name any religious See also:

• SYSTEM

system of any description in which it is wholly unrecognized.' The origin of the practice is very obscure.4 In his Principles of See also:

• SOCIOLOGY

Sociology See also:

• HERBERT (FAMILY)
• HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633)
• HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM
• HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682)

Herbert See also:

• SPENCER
• SPENCER, HERBERT (1820-1903)
• SPENCER, JOHN CHARLES SPENCER, 3RD EARL (1782-1845)
• SPENCER, JOHNPOYNTZ SPENCER
• SPENCER, WILLIAM ROBERT (1769-1834)

Spencer collected, from the accounts we have of various See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage tribes in widely separated 3 Confucianism ought perhaps to be named as one . Zoroastrian-ism is frequently given as another, but hardly corrrectly . In the See also:

• LIBER

Liber Sad-der, indeed (Porta See also:

• XXV

xxv.), we read, " Cavendum est See also:

• TIBIA

tibia jejunio; nam a mane ad vesperam nihil comedere non est bonum in religione nostra "; but according to the Pere de See also:

• CHINON

Chinon (See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, 1671) the Parsee See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion enjoins, upon the priesthood at least, no fewer than five yearly fasts . See See also:

• HYDE
• HYDE, THOMAS (1636-1703)

Hyde, Veterum Persarum religio, pp . 449, 548 (ed . 1700) . 4 During the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages the prevalent notion was that it had its origin in See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

paradise . The germ at least of this See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea is to be found in Tertullian, who says: " Acceperat See also:

• ADAM
• ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288)
• ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741–1809)
• ADAM, JULIETTE (1836– )
• ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759)
• ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622)
• ADAM, PAUL (1862– )
• ADAM, ROBERT (1728—1792)
• ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781-1853)
• ADAM, WILLIAM (1751-1839)

Adam a Deo legem non gustandi de arbore agnitionis See also:

• BONI (Bone)

boni et mali, moriturus si gustasset; verum et ipse tune in psychicum reversus ... facilius ventri quam Deo cessit, pabulo potius quam praecepto annuit, salutem See also:

• GULA

gula vendidit, manducavit denique et periit, salvus alioquin si uni arbusculae jejunare maluisset " (De jejuniis, c .

3) . 11 parts of the globe, a considerable body of See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence, from which he suggested that it may have arisen out of the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of providing refreshments for the dead, either by actually feeding the See also:

• CORPSE (Lat. corpus, the body)

corpse, or by leaving eatables and drinkables for its use . It is suggested that the fasting which was at first the natural and inevitable result of such See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice on behalf of the dead may eventually have come to be regarded as an indispensable concomitant of all sacrifice, and so have survived as a well-established usage long after the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original cause had ceased to operate.' But this theory is repudiated by the best authorities; indeed its extreme precariousness at once becomes evident when it is remembered that, now at least, it is usual for religious fasts to precede rather than to follow sacrificial and funeral feasts, if observed at all in connexion with these . Spencer himself (p . 284) admits that " probably the practice arises in more ways than one," and proceeds to supplement the theory already given by another—that adopted by E . B . See also:

• TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT (1832- )

Tylor—to the effect that it originated in the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the primitive man to bring on at will certain abnormal See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous conditions favourable to the seeing of those visions. and the dreaming of those dreams which are supposed to give the soul See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to the See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective realities of the spiritual See also:

• WORLD

world ? Probably, if we leave out of sight the very numerous and obvious cases in which fasting, originally the natural reflex result of grief, fear or other strong emotion, has come to be the usual conventional See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of these, we shall find that the practice is generally resorted to, either as a means of somehow exalting the higher faculties at the expense of the See also:

• LOWER

lower, or as an act of See also:

• HOMAGE (from homo, through the Low Lat. hominaticum, which occurs in a document of 1035)

homage to some object of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . The See also:

• AXIOM (Gr. &iwµa)

axiom of the Amazulu, that " the continually stuffed body cannot see See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret things," meets even now with See also:

• PRETTY

pretty See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance; and if the notion that it is precisely the food which the worshipper foregoes that makes the deity more vigorous to do See also:

• BATTLE

battle for his human friend be confined only to a few scattered tribes of savages, the general proposition that " fasting is a See also:

• WORK

work of reverence toward See also:

• GOD

God " may be said to be an See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of the See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic faith.' Although fasting as a religious rite is to be met with almost everywhere, there aretomparatively few religions, and those only of the more See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, which appoint definite public fasts, and make them binding at fixed seasons upon all the faithful . See also:

• BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism, for example, does not appear to enforce any stated fast upon the laity.' Among the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Egyptians fasting seems to have been associated with many religious festivals, notably with that of See also:

• ISIS (Egyptian Ese)

Isis (See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod. ii . 40), but it does not appear that, so far as the See also:

• COMMON

common people were concerned, the observance of thes. festivals (which were purely See also:

• LOCAL

local) was compulsory . The vrtvTeia on the third day of the Thesmophoria at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was observed only by the See also:

• WOMEN

women attending the festival (who were permitted to eat cakes made of See also:

• SESAME

sesame and See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey) .

It is doubtful whether the fast mentioned by See also:

• LIVY [Thus L1v1us] (59 B.C.—A.D: 17)

Livy (See also:

• XXXVI

xxxvi . 37) was intended to be general or sacerdotal merely . Jewish Fasts.—While remarkable for the cheerful, non-ascetic See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their worship, the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews were no less distinguished from all the nations of antiquity by their See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn fast appointed to be observed on the loth day of the 7th See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month (Tisri), the See also:

• PENALTY (Lat. poena, punishment)

penalty of disobedience being death . The rules, as laid down in.Lev. xvi . 29-34, See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . 27-32 and Numb. See also:

• XXIX

xxix . 7-11, include a special See also:

• INJUNCTION (from Lat. injungere, to fasten, or attach to, to lay a burden or charge on, to enjoin)

injunction of strict abstinence (" ye shall afflict your souls " s) from evening to evening . This fast was intimately associated with the chief feast of the See also:

• YEAR

year . Before that feast ' Principles of Sociology, i. pp . 170, 284, 285 . Compare the passage in the appendix from Hanusch, Slavischer Mythus, p . 408 .

2 Spencer, Prin. of Sociology, i . 256, &C.; E . B . Tylor, Primitive Culture, i . 277, 402 ; ii . 372, &c . 3 See also:

• HOOKER, JOSEPH (1814–1879)
• HOOKER, RICHARD (1553-1600)
• HOOKER, SIR JOSEPH DALTON (1817— English botanist and traveller, second son of the famous botanist Sir W.J.Hooker, was born on the 3oth of June 1817, at Halesworth, Suffolk. He was educated at Glasgow University, and almost immediately after taking his M.
• HOOKER, SIR WILLIAM JACKSON (1785–1865)
• HOOKER, THOMAS (1586–1647)

Hooker, E.P. v . 72 . In the See also:

• WESTMINSTER
• WESTMINSTER, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• WESTMINSTER, STATUTES OF
• WESTMINSTER, SYNODS OF

Westminster See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

Assembly's Larger See also:

• CATECHISM (from Gr. Karnxeiv, teach by word of mouth)

Catechism fasting is mentioned among the duties required by the second commandment . ' The Brahmans themselves on the See also:

• ELEVENTH

eleventh day after the full See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

moon and the eleventh day after the new " abstain for sixty See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours from every kind of sustenance "; and some have a special fast every See also:

• MONDAY (in O.E. Monandaeg, the moon's day, a translation of the Late Lat. Lunae dies, from which the French lundi is taken)

Monday in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November . See Picart, The Religion and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

Manners of the Brahmins . S ev. is here to be taken as substantially equivalent to " desire," " appetite."could be entered upon, the sins of the people had to be confessed and (sacramentally) expiated .

The fast was a suitable concomitant of that contrition which befitted the occasion . 1 he practice of stated fasting was not in any other case enjoined by the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law; and it is generally understood to have been forbidden on See also:

• SABBATH

Sabbath.6 At the same time, private and occasional fasting, being regarded as a natural and legitimate See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct, was regulated rather than repressed . The only other See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision about fasting in the See also:

• PENTATEUCH

Pentateuch is of a regulative nature, Numb. See also:

• XXX

xxx . 14 (13), to the effect that a See also:

• VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE)

vow made by a woman " to afflict the soul " may in certain circumstances be cancelled by her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband . The See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel from See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses to See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Ezra furnishes a large number of instances in which the fasting instinct was obeyed both publicly and privately, locally and nationally, under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of sorrow, or fear, or passionate desire . See, for example, Judg. xx . 26; 1 Sam. vii . 6 (where the See also:

• NATIONAL

national fast was conjoined with the ceremony of pouring out water before the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord); Jer. xxxvi . 6, 9; and 2 Sam. xii . 16 ? Sometimes the observance of such fasts extended over a considerable period of time, during which, of course, the stricter jejunium was conjoined with abstinentia (See also:

• DAN

Dan. x . 2) .

Sometimes they lasted only for a day . In See also:

• JONAH
• JONAH, RABBI (ABULWALID MERWAN IBN JANAH, also R. MARINUS) (c. 996-c. 1050)

Jonah iii . 6, 7, we have an illustrative example of the rigour with which a strict fast might be observed; and such passages as See also:

• JOEL
• JOEL, MANUEL (1826–189o)

Joel ii. and Isa. lviii . 5 enable us to picture with some vividness the outward accompaniments of a Jewish fast day before the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile . During the exile many occasional fasts were doubtless observed by the scattered communities, in sorrowful See also:

• COMMEMORATION

commemoration of the various sad events which had issued in the downfall of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• JUDAH

Judah . Of these, four appear to have passed into general use—the fasts of the loth, 4th, 5th and 7th months—commemorating the beginning of the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, the destruction of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, the assassination of Gedaliah . As time rolled on they became invested with increasing sanctity; and though the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet See also:

• ZECHARIAH

Zechariah, when consulted about them at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the exile (Zech. viii . 19), had by no means encouraged the observance of them, the re-See also:

• BUILDING

building of the temple does not appear to have been considered an achievement of sufficient importance to See also:

• WARRANT (Med. Lat. warantum; O. Fr. garant, warant, derived from O.H.G. root represented in modern German bygewdhren)

warrant their discontinuance . It is worthy of remark that See also:

• EZEKIEL (SKpm', " God strengthens" or " God is strong "; Sept. 'IE'EKL?)X; Vulg. Ezechiel)

Ezekiel's prophetic legislation contains no reference to any fast day; the See also:

• BOOK

book of See also:

• ESTHER

Esther (ix . 31), on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, records the institution of a new fast on the 13th of the 12th month . In the See also:

• POST

post-exile period private fasting was much practised by the pious, and encouraged by the religious sentiment of the time (see See also:

• JUDITH, THE BOOK OF

Judith viii . 6; Tob. xii .

8, and context; Sirach xxxiv . 26, See also:

• LUKE
• LUKE, GOSPEL OF ST

Luke ii . 37 and xviii . 12) . The last reference contains an allusion to the weekly fasts which were observed on the 2nd and 5th days of each week, in commemoration, it was said, of the ascent and descent of Moses at See also:

• SINAI

Sinai . The real origin of these fasts and the date of their introduction are alike uncertain; it is manif9st, however, that the observance of them was voluntary, and never made a See also:

• MATTER

matter of universal See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation . It is probable that the See also:

• SADDUCEES

Sadducees, if not also the See also:

• ESSENES

Essenes, wholly neglected them . The second book (Seder Hoed) of the Mishna contains two tractates bearing upon the subject of fasting . One (Yoma, " the day ") deals exclusively with the See also:

• RITES

rites which were to be observed on the See also:

• GREAT

great day of expiation or See also:

• ATONEMENT

atonement the other (Taanith, " fast ") is devoted to the other fasts, and 6 See Judith viii . 6 . " And yet it may be a question whether they (the Jews) did not always fast upon Sabbath," says Hooker (E.P v . 72, 7), who gives a curious See also:

• ARRAY (from the O. Fr. areyer, Med. Lat. arredare, to get ready)

array of evidence pointing in this direction .

He even makes use of Neh. viii . 9-12, which might be thought to tell the other way . Justinian 's phrase, " Sabbata Judaeorum a Mose in omne aevum jejunio dicata " (1. xxxvi. c . 2; comp . Suetonius, See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus, 76) may be accounted for by the fact that the day of atonement is called Sabbat Sabbaton (" a perfect Sabbath ") . There is, as See also:

• GRAF, ARTURO (1848– )
• GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815–1869)

Graf (Gesch . See also:

• BUCHER, LOTHAR (1817–1892)

Bucher See also:

• DES

des A.T. p . 41) has pointed out, no direct evidence that the fast on the loth of the 7th month was ever observed before the exile . But the inference which he draws from this silence of the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical books is manifestly a See also:

• PRECARIOUS

precarious one at best . Bieck calls Lev. xvi . " ein deutliches Beispiel Mosaischer Abfassung " (Einleitung, p . 3t, ed .

1878) . deals especially with the manner in which occasional fasting is to be gone about if no See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain shall have fallen on or before the 17th day of Marcheschwan . It is enacted that in such a case the rabbis shall begin with a light fast of three days (Monday, See also:

• THURSDAY

Thursday, Monday), i.e. a fast during which it is lawful to work, and also to See also:

• WASH, THE

wash and anoint the person . Then, in the event of a continued drought, fasts of increasing intensity are ordered; and as a last resort the See also:

• ARK (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Arche, adapted from the Lat. area, chest, cf. arcere, to shut up, enclose)„ a chest, basket or box. The Hebrew word tebah, translated in the' A.V. by " ark," is used in the Old Testament (1)

ark is to be brought into the See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street and sprinkled with ashes, the heads of the See also:

• NASI, JOSEPH (16th century)

Nasi and Ab-beth-din being at the same time similarly sprinkled.' In no case was any fast to be allowed to interfere with new-moon or other fixed festival . Another institution treated with considerable fulness in the See also:

• TREATISE

treatise Taanith is that of the snyn ' s (viri stations), who are represented as having been laymen severally representing the twenty-four classes or families into. which the whole See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

commonwealth of the laity was divided . They used to attend the temple in rotation, and be See also:

• PRESENT

present at the sacrifices; and as this See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to each in his turn, the men of the class or See also:

• FAMILY

family which he represented were expected in their several cities and places of See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode to, engage themselves in religious exercises, and especially in fasting . The See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion will readily occur that here may be the origin of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian stationes . But neither Tertullian nor any other of the fathers seems to have been aware of the existence of any such institution among the Jews; and very probably the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story about it may have been a comparatively See also:

• LATE

late invention . It ought to be See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne in mind that the Aramaic portion of the Megillath Taanith (a document consider-ably older than the See also:

• TREATISES

treatises in the Mishna) gives a See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

catalogue only of the days on which fasting was forbidden . The See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew See also:

• PART

part (commented on by See also:

• MAIMONIDES

Maimonides), in which numerous fasts are recommended, is of considerably later date . See See also:

• RELAND, ADRIAN (1676-1718)

Reland, Antiq . Hebr. p. iv. c. ro; See also:

• DERENBOURG, JOSEPH (1811-1895)

Derenbourg, Hist. de See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, p .

439• Practice of the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Christian Church.—Jesus Himself did not inculcate See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism in His teaching, and the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of that distinctive See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element from His practice was sometimes a subject of hostile remark (Matt. xi . 19) . We read, indeed, that on one occasion He fasted forty days and forty nights; but the expression, which is an obscure one, possibly means nothing more than that He endured the privations ordinarily involved in a stay in the See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness . While we have no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt that He observed the one great national fast prescribed in the written law of Moses, we have See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express See also:

• NOTICE

notice that neither He nor His disciples were in the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of observing the other fasts which custom and tradition had established . See See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark ii . 18, where the correct See also:

• READING

reading appears to be—" The disciples of See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John, and the See also:

• PHARISEES

Pharisees, were fasting " (some customary fast) . He never formally forbade fasting, but neither did He ever enjoin it . He assumed that, in certain circumstances of sorrow and need, the fasting instinct would sometimes be felt by the community and the individual; what He was chiefly concerned about was to warn His followers against the mistaken aims which His contemporaries were so See also:

• APT

apt to contemplate in their fasting (Matt. vi . 16-18) . In one passage, indeed, He has been understood as practically commanding resort to the practice in certain circumstances . It ought to be noted, however, that Matt. xvii . 21 is probably See also:

• SPURIOUS

spurious; and that in Mark ix .

29 the words " and fasting " are omitted by See also:

• WESTCOTT, BROOKE FOSS (1825-1901)

Westcott and See also:

• HORT, FENTON JOHN ANTHONY (1828–1892)

Hort as well as by See also:

• TISCHENDORF, LOBEGOTT FRIEDRICH KONSTANTIN VON (1815-1874)

Tischendorf on the evidence of the See also:

• COD

Cod . Sinaiticus (first hand) and Cod . Vaticanus.2 The reference to " the fast " in Acts See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . 9 has generally been held to indicate that the apostles continued to observe the yearly Jewish fast . But this inference is by no means a necessary one . According to Acts xiii . 2, 3, xiv . 23, they conjoined fasting with prayer at ordinations, and doubtless also on some other solemn occasions; but at the same time the See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty of the Christian in respect of an See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday, or of the new moon, or of the Sabbath " was strongly insisted on, by one of them at least, who declared that meat whether taken or abstained from commendeth not to God (See also:

• COL
• COL (Fr. for " neck," Lat. collum)

Col . ' The allusion to the ark warns us to be cautious in assuming the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the Mishna to have been ever in force . ' The idea, however, is found in the Clementine Homilies, ix . 9 . Compare Tertullian De jejuniis, c .

8: " Docait etiam adversus diriora daemonia jejuniis praeliandum."ii . 16-23; I See also:

• COR

Cor. viii . 8 ; Rom. xiv . 14-22 ; 1 Tim. iv . 3-5) . The fastings to which the apostle See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul alludes in 2 Cor . Vi . 5, xi . 27, were rather of the nature of inevitable hardships cheerfully endured in the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of his sacred calling . The words which appear to encourage fasting in i Cor. vii . 5 are absent from all the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts and are now omitted by all critics;3and on the whole the See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept and practice of the New Testament, while recognizing the propriety of occasional and extraordinary fasts, seem to be decidedly hostile to the See also:

• IMPOSITION (from Lat. imponere, to place or lay upon)

imposition of any of a stated, obligatory and general kind . The usage of the Christian church during the earlier centuries was in this, as in so many other matters, influenced by traditional Jewish feeling, and by the force of old habit, quite as much as by any direct apostolic authority or supposed divine command .

Habitual See also:

• TEMPERANCE

temperance was of course in all cases regarded as an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute duty; and " the bridegroom " being absent, the present life was regarded as being in a sense one continual " fast." Fasting in the stricter sense was not unknown; but it is certain that it did not at first occupy nearly so prominent a place in Christian See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual as that to which it afterwards attained . There are early traces of the customary observance of the Wednesday and See also:

• FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dreg, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the goddess of love—the Norse Frigg,—the dreg, day; cf. Icelandic frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freitag)

Friday fasts—the See also:

• DIES, CHRISTOPH ALBERT (1755-1822)

dies stationurn (Clem . Alex . Strom. vii . 877), and also of a " quadragesimal " fast before See also:

• EASTER

Easter . But the very passage which proves the early origin of " quadragesima," conclusively shows how uncertain it was in its character, and how unlike the Catholic " See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

Lent." See also:

• IRENAEUS

Irenaeus, quoted by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius (v . 24), informs us with reference to the customary yearly celebration of the See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery of the resurrection of our Lord, that disputes prevailed not only with respect to the day, but also with respect to the manner of fasting in connexion with it . " For some think that they ought to fast only one day, some two, some more days ; some compute their day as consisting of forty hours See also:

• NIGHT

night and day ; and this diversity existing among those that observe it is not a matter that has just sprung up in our times, but long ago among those before us." It was not pretended that the apostles had legislated on the matter, but the general and natural feeling that the anniversaries of the crucifixion and the resurrection of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ ought to be celebrated by Christians took expression in a variety of ways according to the differing tastes of individuals . No other stated fasts, besides those already mentioned, can be adduced from the time before Irenaeus ; but there was also a tendency—not unnatural in itself, and already sanctioned by Jewish practice—to fast by way of preparation for any See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege . Thus, according to See also:

• JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS)

Justin See also:

• MARTYR (Gr. pimp or µaprvs)

Martyr (Apol. ii . 93), catechumens were accustomed to fast before See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism, and the church fasted with them . To the same feeling the quadragcsimal fast which (as already stated) preceded the joyful feast of the resurrection, is to be, in part at least, attributed .

As early as the time of Tertullian it was also usual for communicants to prepare them-selves by fasting for receiving the See also:

• EUCHARIST (Gr. evXapurria, thanksgiving)

eucharist . But that Christian fasts had not yet attained to the exaggerated importance which they afterwards assumed is strikingly shown in the well-known Shepherd of See also:

• HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF

Hermas (See also:

• LIB

lib. iii. sim. v.), where it is declared that " with merely outward fasting nothing is done for true virtue " ; the believer is exhorted chiefly to abstain from evil and seek to cleanse himself from feelings of covetousness, and impurity, and revenge : " on the day that See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

thou fastest content thyself with See also:

• BREAD

bread, vegetables and water, and thank God for these . But reckon up on this day what thy See also:

• MEAL

meal would otherwise have cost thee, and give the amount that it comes to to some poor widow or See also:

• ORPHAN

orphan, or to the poor." The right of bishops to ordain special fasts, "ex aliqua sollicitudinis ecclesiasticae causa " (Tertullian), was also recognized . Later Practice of the Church.—According to an expression preserved by Eusebius (H.R. v . 18), Montanus was the first to give laws (to the church) on fasting . Such See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, though rhetorical in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, is substantially correct . The treatise of Tertullian,—Concerning Fasting : against the Carnal,—written as ' On the See also:

• MANUSCRIPT

manuscript evidence the words " I was fasting," in Acts x . 30, must also be regarded as doubtful . They are rejected by See also:

• LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851)

Lachmann, See also:

• TREGELLES, SAMUEL PRIDEAUX (1813–1875)

Tregelles and Tischendorf . it was under Montanistic influence, is doubly interesting, first as showing how free the practice of the church down to that time had been, and then as foreshadowing the burdensome legislation which was destined to succeed . In that treatise (c . 15) he approves indeed of the church practice of not fasting on Saturdays and Sundays (as elsewhere, De See also:

• CORONA (Lat. for " crown ")

corona, c .

3, he had expressed his concurrence in the other practice of observing the entire period between Easter and See also:

• PENTECOST

Pentecost as a season of joy) ; but otherwise he evinces great dissatisfaction with the indifference of the church as to the number, duration and severity of her fasts.' The church thus came to be more and more involved in discussions as to the number of days to be observed, especially in " Lent," as fast days, as to the See also:

• HOUR

hour at which a fast ought to terminate (whether at the 3rd or at the 9th hour), as to the rigour with which each fast ought to be observed (whether by abstinence from flesh merely, abstinenlia, or by abstinence from lacticinia, xerophagia, or by literal jejunium), and as to the penalties by which the laws of fasting ought to be enforced . Almost a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, however, elapsed between the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition of the treatise of Tertullian (cir . 212) and the first recorded instances of ecclesiastical legislation on the subject . These, while far from indicating that the church had attained unanimity on the points at issue, show progress in the direction of the later practice of catholicism . About the year 306 the See also:

• SYNOD
• SYNOD (Gr. vbvobos)

synod of Illiberis in its 26th canon decided in favour of the observance of the Saturday fast.' The.council of See also:

• ANCYRA (mod. Angora, q.v.)

Ancyra in 324, on the other hand, found it necessary to legislate in a somewhat different direction, by its 14th canon enjoining its priests and clerks at least to See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste meat at the love feasts.' The synod of See also:

• LAODICEA
• LAODICEA, SYNOD OF

Laodicea framed several rules with regard to the observance of " Lent," such as that " during Lent the bread shall not be offered except on Saturday and See also:

• SUNDAY

Sunday " (can . 49), that " the fast shall not be relaxed on the Thursday of the last week of Lent, thus dishonouring the whole season; but the fast shall be kept throughout the whole period " (can . 50), that " during the fast no feasts of the martyrs shall be celebrated " (can . 51), and that " no See also:

• WEDDING

wedding or birthday feasts shall be celebrated during Lent " (can . 52), The synod of See also:

• HIPPO

Hippo (393 A.U.) enacted that the See also:

• SACRAMENT

sacrament of the See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar should always be taken fasting, except on the Thursday before Easter . Protests in favour of freedom were occasionally raised, not always in a very See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise manner, or on very wise grounds, by various individuals such as See also:

• EUSTATHIUS
• EUSTATHIUS, or EUMATHIUS

Eustathius of Sebaste (c . 35o), Aerius of See also:

• PONTUS

Pontus (c . 375), and Jovinian, a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk (c .

388) . Of the Eustathians, for example (whose connexion' with Eustathius can hardly be doubted), the complaint was made that " they fast on Sundays, but eat on the fast-days of the church." They were condemned by the synod of Gangra in See also:

• PAPHLAGONIA

Paphlagonia in the following canons:—Can . 19, " If any one fast on Sunday, let him be See also:

• ANATHEMA (from Gr. avarz6 'cu, to lift up)

anathema." 4 Can . 20, " If any one do not keep the fasts universally commanded and observed by the whole church, let him be anathema." Jovinian was very moderate . He " did not allow himself to be hurried on by an inconsiderate zeal to condemn fasting, the life of See also:

• CELIBACY (Lat. caelibatus, from caelebs, unmarried)

celibacy, monachism, considered purely in themselves . . . . He merely sought to show that men were ' Quinam isti (adversarii) sint, semel nominabo: exteriores et interiores botuli psychicorum . Arguunt nos quod jejunia propria custodiamus, quod stationes plerumque in vesperam producamus, quod etiam xerophagias observemus, siccantes cibum ab omni carne or omni jurulentia et uvidioribus quibusque pomis, nec quid vinositatis vel cdamus vel potemus; lavacri quoque abstinentiam congruentem arido victui . 2 The language of the canon is ambiguous; but this See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation seems to be preferable, especially in view of canon 23, which enacts that jejunii superpositions are to be observed in all months except See also:

• JULY

July and See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August . See See also:

• HEFELE, KARL JOSEF VON (1809-1893)

Hefele, See also:

• COUNCILS

Councils, i . 148 (Engl. trs.) . Compare the 52nd [51st] of the See also:

• APOSTOLICAL

Apostolical canons .

If any See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop or See also:

• PRESBYTER (Gr. apactObTepos, elder, the comparative of IrOo-Oas, an old man)

presbyter or See also:

• DEACON (Gr. S&& ovos, minister, servant)

deacon, or indeed any one of the sacerdotal catalogue, abstains from flesh and See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, not for his own exercise but out of hatred of the things, forgetting that all things were very good . . . either let him reform, or let him be deprived and be See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast out of the church . So also a layman." To this particular canon Hefele is disposed to assign a very early date . 4 Compare canon 64 of the (supposed) See also:

• FOURTH

fourth synod of See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage: " He who fasts on Sunday is not accounted a Catholic " (Hefele, ii . 415).wrong in recommending so highly and indiscriminately the life of celibacy and fasting, though he was ready to admit that both under certain circumstances might be good and useful " (Neauder) . He was nevertheless condemned (390) both by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• SIRICIUS

Siricius at a synod in See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, and by See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose at another in See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan . The views of Aerius, according to the representations of his See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter opponent See also:

• EPIPHANIUS, SAINT (c. 315-402)

Epiphanius (Haer . 75, " Adv . Aerium "), seem on this See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head at least, though unpopular, to have been characterized by great See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and sobriety . He did not condemn fasting altogether, but. thought that it ought to be resorted to in the spirit of See also:

• GOSPEL (O. Eng. godspel, i.e. good news, a translation of Lat. bona annuntiatio, or evangelium, Gr. evayyeXwv; cf. Goth. iu spillon, " to announce good news," Ulfilas' translation of the Greek, from iu, that which is good, and spellon to announce)

gospel freedom according as each occasion should arise . He found See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault with the church for having substituted for Christian liberty a yoke of Jewish bondage.' Towards the beginning of the 5th century we find See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates (439) enumerating (H.E. v . 22) a long catalogue of the different fasting practices of the church .

The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans fasted three See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks continuously before Easter (Saturdays and Sundays excepted) . In See also:

• ILLYRIA

Illyria, Achaia and See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria the quadragesimal fast lasted six weeks . Others (the Constantinopolitans) began their fasts seven weeks before Easter, but fasted only on alternate weeks, five days at a time . Corresponding See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences as to the manner of abstinence occurred . Some abstained from all living creatures; others See also:

• ATE

ate fish ; others fish and See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl . Some abstained from eggs and See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit; some confined themselves to bread; some would not take even that . Some fasted till three in the afternoon, and then took whatever they pleased . " Other nations," adds the historian, " observe other customs in their fasts, and that for various reasons . And since no one can show any written See also:

• RULE

rule about this, it is See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain the apostles See also:

• LEFT

left this matter free to every one's liberty and choice, that no one should be compelled to do a good thing out of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity and fear.", When See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo the Great became pope in 440, a period of more rigid uniformity began . The imperial authority of Valentinian helped to bring the whole See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West at least into submission to the see of Rome ; and ecclesiastical enactments had, more than formerly, the support of the See also:

• CIVIL

civil power . Though the introduction of the four Ember seasons was not entirely due to him, as has sometimes been asserted, it is certain that their widespread observance was due to his influence, and to that of his successors, especially of See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory the Great . The tendency to increased rigour may be discerned in the 2nd canon of the synod of See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans (541), which declares that every Christian is See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to observe the fast of Lent, and, in case of failure to do so, is to be punished according to the laws of the church by his spiritual See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior; in the 9th canon of the synod of See also:

• TOLEDO
• TOLEDO, COUNCILS OF (Concilia toletana)

Toledo (653), which declares the eating of flesh during Lent to be a mortal See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin; in See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne's law for the newly conquered See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony, which attaches the penalty of death to wanton disregard of the See also:

• HOLY

holy season.' See also:

• BARONIUS, CAESAR (1538-1607)

Baronius mentions that in the 11th century those who ate flesh during Lent were liable to have their See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth knocked out .

But it ought to be remembered that this severity of the law early began to be tempered by the power to See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

grant dispensations . The so-called See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

Butter Towers (See also:

• TOURS

Tours de beurre) of See also:

• ROUEN

Rouen, 1485-1507, See also:

• BOURGES

Bourges and other cities, are said to have been built with See also:

• MONEY

money raised by See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale of dispensations to eat lacticinia on fast days . It is probable that the apparent severity of the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval Latin Church on this subject was largely due to the real strictness of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Church, which, under the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch See also:

• PHOTIUS
• PHOTIUS (c. 82o-891)

Photius in 864, had taken what was virtually a new departure in its fasting praxis . The rigour of the fasts of the See also:

• MODERN

modern Greek Church is well known; and it can on the whole be traced back to that comparatively early date . Of the nine fundamental laws of that See also:

• PRISCILLIAN (d. 385)

Priscillian, whose widespread See also:

• HERESY

heresy evoked from the synod of See also:

• SARAGOSSA (Zaragoza)
• SARAGOSSA, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Caesarauguslana)

Saragossa (418) the canon, " No one shall fast on Sunday, nor may any one absent himself from church during Lent and hold a festival of his own," appears, on the question of fasting, not to have differed from the Encratites and various other sects of Manichean tendency (c . 406) . e Cap. iii. See also:

• PRO

pro partib . Saxoniae: " Si quis sanctum quadragesimale jejunium pro despectu Christianitatis contempserit et carnem comederit, morte nloriatur . Sed tamen consideretur a sacerdote ne forte causa necessitatis hoc cuilibet proveniat, ut carnem comedat." See See also:

• AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841)

Augusti, Christliche Archdologie, x. p . 374 . church (ivvEa irapayyatuara efjs EKKNIN-See also:

• LAS

Las) two are concerned with fasting . Besides fasts of an occasional and extraordinary nature, the following are recognized as of stated and universal obligation: (r) The Wednesday and Friday fasts throughout the year (with the exception of the period between See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas and See also:

• EPIPHANY, FEAST OF

Epiphany, the Easter week, the week after See also:

• WHITSUNDAY, or PENTECOST (Lat. Pentecoste, Gr. 7revr?p oa'Til sc. iyipa, Fr. Pentecote, Ger. Pfingsten, fr. O. H. Ger. fimfchustin)

Whitsunday, the third week after Epiphany); (2) The great yearly fasts, viz. that of Lent, lasting 48 days, from the Monday of Sexagesima to Easter See also:

• EVE

eve; that of See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

Advent, 39 days, from November 15 to Christmas eve; that of the Theotokos (voa-refa ri s OeoTb ou), from August r to August IS; that of the Holy Apostles, lasting a variable number of days from the Monday after Trinity; (3) The See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor yearly fasts before Epiphany, before Whitsunday, before the feasts of the transfiguration, the invention of the See also:

• CROSS

cross, the See also:

• BEHEADING

beheading of John the Baptist .

During even the least rigid of these the use of flesh and lacticinia is strictly forbidden; fish, oil and wine are occasionally conceded, but not before two o'See also:

• CLOCK

clock in the afternoon . The practice of the Coptic church is almost identical with this . A week before the Great Fast (Lent), a fast of three days is observed in commemoration of that of the Ninevites, mentioned in the book of Jonah . Some of the See also:

• COPTS

Copts are said to observe it by See also:

• TOTAL

total abstinence during the whole period . The Great Fast continues fifty-five days; nothing is eaten except bread and vegetables, and that only in the afternoon, when church prayers are over . The Fast of the Nativity lasts for twenty-eight days before Christmas; that of the Apostles for a variable number of days from the Feast of the See also:

• ASCENSION
• ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE

Ascension; and that of the Virgin for fifteen days before the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

Assumption . All Wednesdays and Fridays are also fast days except those that occur in the period between Easter and Whitsunday . The Armenians are equally strict; but (adds Rycaut) " the times seem so confused and without rule that they can scarce be re-counted, unless by those who live amongst them, and strictly observe them, it being the chief care of the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, whose learning principally consists in knowing the appointed times of fasting and feasting, the which they never omit on Sundays to publish unto the people." 1 At the council of See also:

• TRENT
• TRENT (Lat. Tridentum; Ital. Trento; Ger. relent)
• TRENT, COUNCIL OF

Trent no more than a passing allusion was made to the subject of fasting . The faithful were simply en-joined to submit themselves to church authority on the subject; and the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy were exhorted to urge their flocks to the observance of frequent jejunia, as conducive to the See also:

• MORTIFICATION

mortification of the flesh, and as assuredly securing the divilie favour . R . F . R .

See also:

• BELLARMINE (Ital. Bellarmino), ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621)

Bellarmine (De jejunio) distinguishes jejunium spirituale (abstinentia a vitiis), jejunum morale (parsimonia et temperantia cibi et polls), jejunium naturale (abstinentia ab omni prorsus cibo et potu, quacunque ratione sumpto), and jejunium ecclesiasticum . The last he defines simply as an abstinence from food in conformity with the rule of the church . It may be either voluntary or compulsory; and compulsory either because of a vow or because of a command . But the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition given by See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander Halensis, which is much See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller, still retains its authority:—" Jejunium est abstinentia a cibo et potu secundum formam ecclesiae, intuitu satisfaciendi pro peccato et acquirendi vitam aeternam." It was to this last clause that the Reformers most seriously objected . They did not deny that fasting might be a good thing, nor did they maintain that the church or the authority might not ordain fasts, though they deprecated the imposition of needless burdens on the See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience . What they protested against was the theory of the See also:

• OPUS ('O7rois)

opus operatum et meritorium as applied to fasting . As matter of fact,. the Reformed churches in no case gave up the custom of observing fast days, though by some churches the number of such days was greatly reduced . In many parts of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the seasons of Lent and Advent are still marked by the use of emblems of See also:

• MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful, 0. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth. maurnan, to be anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root seen in Gr. jdptpva, sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die)

mourning in the churches, by the frequency of certain phrases (See also:

• KYRIE (in full kyrie eleison, or eleeson, Gr. Kvpte MEssvov; cf. Ps. cxxii. 3, Matt. xv. 22, &c., meaning " Lord, have mercy ")

Kyrie eleison, Agnus Dei) and the absence of others (Hallelujah, Gloria in excelsis) in the liturgical services, by abstinence from some of the usual social festivities, and by the non-celebration of marriages . And occasional fasts are more ' See Fink's article " Fasten " in Erschand See also:

• GRUBER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1774-1851)

Gruber's Encyclopddie; See also:

• LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801–1876)
• LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814–1866)

Lane, Modern Egyptians; and Rycaut, Present See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State of the Armenian Church.or less See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar . The Church of England has retained a considerable See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of fasts; though Hooker (E.P. v . 72) had to See also:

• CON

con-tend with some who, while approving of fastings undertaken " of men's own free and voluntary See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord as their particular devotion doth move them thereunto," yet "yearly or weekly fasts such as ours in the Church of England they allow no further than as the temporal state of the See also:

• LAND

land doth require the same for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of seafaring men and preservation of See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle; because the decay of the one and the See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste of the other could not well be prevented but by a politic See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order appointing some such usual See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of diet as ours is." In the practice of modern Roman Catholicism the following are recognized as fasting days, that is to say, days on which one meal only, and that not of flesh, may be taken in the course of twenty-four hours:—The forty days of Lent (Sundays excepted), all the Ember days, the Wednesdays and Fridays in Advent, and the vigils of certain feasts, namely, those of Whitsuntide, of St See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter and St Paul, of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, of All See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

Saints and of Christmas day . The following are simply days of abstinence, that is to say, days on which flesh at all events must not be eaten:—The Sundays in Lent, the three Rogation days, the feast of St Mark (unless it falls in Easter week), and all Fridays which are not days of fasting .

In the See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican Church, the " days of fasting or abstinence " are the forty days of Lent, the Ember days, the Rogation days, and all the Fridays in the year, except Christmas day . The evens or vigils before Christmas, the See also:

• PURIFICATION

Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the See also:

• ANNUNCIATION

Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Easter day, Ascension day, Pentecost, St See also:

• MATTHIAS
• MATTHIAS (1557-1619)

Matthias, the Nativity of St John Baptist, St Peter, St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James, St See also:

• BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893)
• BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT

Bartholomew, St See also:

• MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF ST
• MATTHEW, ST (MaOOaior or MarOaIos, probably a shortened form of the Hebrew equivalent to Theodorus)
• MATTHEW, TOBIAS

Matthew, St See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon and St See also:

• JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF

Jude, St See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew, St See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas, and All Saints are also recognized as " fast days." By the 64th canon it is enacted that " every See also:

• PARSON

parson, See also:

• VICAR (Lat. vicarius, substitute)

vicar or See also:

• CURATE (from the Lat. curare, to take care of)

curate, shall in his several See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge declare to the people every Sunday at the time appointed in the communion-book [which is, after the Nicene creed has been repeated] whether there be any holy-days or fast-days the week following."' The 72nd canon ordains that " no See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister or ministers shall, without See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence and direction of the bishop under hand and See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal, appoint or keep any solemn fasts, either publicly or in any private houses, other than such as by law are or by public authority shall be appointed, nor shall be wittingly present at any of them under See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain of suspension for the first fault, of See also:

• EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication for the second, and of deposition from the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry for the third." While strongly discouraging the arbitrary multiplication of public or private fasts, the See also:

• ENGLISH

English Church seems to leave to the discretion of the individual conscience every question as to the manner in which the fasts she formally enjoins are to be observed . In this connexion the homily Of Fasting may be again referred to . By a See also:

• STATUTE

statute of the reign of See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth it was enacted that none should eat flesh on " fish days " (the Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays throughout the year) without a licence, under a penalty . In the Scottish Presbyterian churches days of " fasting, humiliation and prayer " are observed by ecclesiastical See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment in each See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish once or twice every year on some day of the week preceding the Sunday fixed for the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of the sacrament of the Lord's Supper . In some of the New England States, it has been usual for the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor to appoint by See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation at some time in spring a day of fasting, when religious services are conducted in the churches . National fasts have more than once been observed on special occasions both in this See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and in the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America . On the subject of fasting the views of Aerius are to a large extent shared by modern See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant moralists . R . See also:

• ROTHE, RICHARD (1799-1867)

Rothe, for example, who on this point may be regarded as a representative thinker, rejects the idea that fasting is a thing meritorious in itself, and is very doubtful of its value even as an aid to devotional feeling . Of course when bodily See also:

• HEALTH

health and other circumstances require it, it becomes a duty; and as a means of self-discipline it may be used with due regard to the claims of other duties, and to the fitness of things . In this last aspect, however, habitual temperance will generally be found to be much more beneficial than occasional fasting .

It is extremely questionable, in particular, whether fasting be so efficient as it is sometimes supposed to be in protecting against temptation to fleshly sin . The practice has a well-ascertained tendency t'o excite the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination; and in so far as it disturbs that healthy and well-balanced interaction of body and mind which is the best or at least the normal See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition for the practice of virtue, it is to be deprecated rather than encouraged (Theologische Ethik, sec . 873-875) . See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan Fasts.—Among the Mahommedans, the month See also:

• RAMADAN

Ramadan, in which the first part of the See also:

• KORAN

Koran is said to have been received, is by command of the prophet observed as a fast with extraordinary rigour . No food or drink of any kind is permitted to be taken from daybreak until the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the stars at nightfall . Extending as it does over the whole " month of raging See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat," such a fast manifestly involves considerable self-denial; and it is absolutely binding upon all the faithful whether at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home or abroad . Should its observance at the appointed time be interfered with by sickness or any other cause, the fast must be kept as soon afterwards as possible for a like number of days . It is the only one which Mahommedanism enjoins; but the doctors of the law recommend a considerable number of voluntary fasts, as for example on the tenth day of the month Moharram . This day, called the " Yom Ashoora," is held sacred on many accounts:—" because it is believed to be the day on which the first See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of Adam and Eve took place after they were cast out of paradise; and that on which See also:

• NOAH (ni, rest; Septuagint, New Testament, Philo, Josephus, Na*, N&i os, Nweos: Vulg. Noe)

Noah went out from the ark; also because several other great events are said to have happened on this day; and because the ancient See also:

• ARABS

Arabs, before the time of the prophet, observed it by fasting . But what, in the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion of most modern Moslems, and especially the Persians, confers the greatest sanctity on the day of Ashoora is the fact of its being that on which El-Hoseyn, the prophet's See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson, was slain a martyr at the battle of the plain of Karbala." It is the practice of many Moslems to fast on this day, and some do so on the preceding day also . See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet himself called fasting the " See also:

• GATE

gate of religion," and forbade it only on the two great festivals, namely, on that which immediately follows Ramadan and on that which succeeds the See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage .