See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

FEATHER (0. Eng. (See also:

• ETHER, (C2H5)2O

ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-See also:

• OAT (O. Eng. ate; the word is not found in cognate languages; it may be allied with Fr. eitel, knot, nodule, cf. Gr. oiSos swelling)

Oat, to See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly)  , a horny outgrowth of the skin of birds homologous with the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of the reptile . The See also:

• BODY

body-covering of birds is, without exception, comprised of feathers, and by this See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character alone birds may be distinguished from all other animals . The most perfect See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• FEATHER (0. Eng. (ether, Ger. Feder, from an Indo-European root seen also in Gr. lrrepov, and aEreo-Oat, to fly)

feather is made up of a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, taperingrod, fringed on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, for the greater See also:

• PART

part of its length, by a secondary See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of slender and tapering rods forming a more or less acute See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle with the central See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis . This fringe is known as the See also:

• VEXILLUM (Lat. dim. of velum, piece of cloth, sail, awning, or from vehere, vest um, to carry)

vexillum or " See also:

• VANE (formerly spelt " fane," i.e. pennon, flag; cf. Ger. Feline, Du. vaan, Fr. girouette, Ital. banderuola, Ger. Wellerfahne)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1589-1654)
• VANE, SIR HENRY (1613-1662)

vane " (fig. r a) . The central axis is divisible into two distinct parts, —a hollow, cylindrical, transparent calamus, or " See also:

• QUILL

quill," the See also:

• BASE

base of which is inserted into the skin, and a solid, quadrangular rhachis or " See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft " which supports the vane . At the See also:

• LOWER

lower end of the quill is a small hole—the lower umbilicus—through which the nutritive pulp passes during the growth of the feather: while at the upper end, where it passes into the shaft, a similar hole will be found,—the upper umbilicus-and from this the last remains of the capsules which contained the nutritive pulp may sometimes be seen protruding . If the quill is cut open a series of these capsules will be found fitting one into the other throughout the whole length of the tubular chamber . a, Outline of a feather showing the relation of the barbs and barbules to the central axis or shaft . b, See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

Section across two of the barbs shown in a, highly magnified . c, Two barbules of the posterior series—seen only in See also:

• CROSS

cross-section in b . The rods comprising the lateral fringe, or vane, are known as the rami or the " barbs," and will be found, on microscopic examination, to be See also:

• LATH (0. Eng. laett, Mid. Eng. lappe, a form possibly due to the Welsh llath; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch lat, Ger. Latte, and has passed into Romanic, cf. Ital. latta, Fr. latte)

lath-shaped and to See also:

• TAPER (probably of Celtic origin, cf. Irish tapar, Welsh tampr, taper, torch)

taper to a point . Further, each barb supports a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double series of smaller outgrowths known as the radii, or barbules "; so that each barb may be likened to a feather in See also:

• MINIATURE

miniature .

These " barbules," however, differ markedly in structure on the two sides of the barb, those pointing towards the tip of the feather—the " anterior barbules —being ribbon-shaped from the base outwards for about See also:

• HALF

half their length, when they become cut up to form a series of long and very delicate hooklets (fig . 1 d) . On the opposite side of the barb the barbules are also ribbon-shaped for about half their length, but the ribbon is curved trough-See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, so that the whole series of posterior barbules forms a number of deep valleys, and into these the hooklets are thrust so as to catch hold of the upper edges of the troughs, which are set so that the d, A barbule of the anterior series . e, Section across the base of three anterior barbules showing See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment to barb . f, A portion of the booklet of the anterior series showing the method of interlocking with the barbules of the posterior series . upper edge is towards the upper, and the lower edge towards the under See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the feather . The manner in which this beautiful mechanism See also:

• WORKS

works may be seen in fig . I b . In one of the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary or " quill feathers of the wing of a See also:

• CRANE (in Dutch, Kraan; O. Ger. Kraen; cognate, as also the Lat. grus, and consequently the Fr. grue and Span. grulla, with the Gr. dpavos)
• CRANE, STEPHEN (1870-1900)
• CRANE, WALTER (1845– )
• CRANE, WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )

crane, each barb of the inner side of the vane was found to 'See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear about 600 pairs of barbules, which would make about 800,000 barbules for the inner See also:

• WEB (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Du. webbe, Dan. vaev, Ger. Gewebe, all from the Teutonic wabh—to weave)

web of the vane alone, or more than a million for the whole feather (H . F . Gadow) . It is to the agency of these hooklets alone that the closely-knit, elastic vanes of the See also:

• FLIGHT

flight feathers and the body feathers are due .

Where these hooklets are wanting the barbs do not adhere together, resulting in a loose " discontinuous " vane such as, for example, is found in the plumes of the See also:

• OSTRICH

ostrich . Many feathers, in addition to the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main axis, bear a second, generally much shorter axis, supporting a loose discontinuous vane; this shorter See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch is known as the "aftershaft " and arises from the under surface of the feather . Only in the See also:

• CASSOWARY (Casuarius)

cassowary and emu among adult birds is the aftershaft as large as the main shaft . There are several different kinds of feathers—See also:

• CONTOUR

contour feathers, semiplumes, down-feathers, filoplumes and See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder-down . Contour feathers, as their name implies, are those which form the contour or outline of the body, and are all that can generally be seen . Those which form the " flight feathers " of the wing, and the tail feathers, are the most perfectly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed . Semi-plumes are degenerate contour feathers . The down-feathers are generally completely hidden by the contour feathers: they form in many birds, such as gulls and ducks, a thick under-clothing comparable to the under-See also:

• FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an outer covering ")

fur of mammals such as the See also:

• SEALS

seals . In all cases they are of a loose, soft, " fluffy " structure, the barbs being of See also:

• GREAT

great length and slenderness, while the barbules are often long and provided with knob-like thickenings answering to the hooklets of the more perfectly developed contour feathers; these thickenings help to " See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt " the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate down-feathers together, the barbs of one down-feather inter-locking with those of its See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour . Down-feathers differ from semiplumes both in their relation to contour feathers and in that they do not possess a main axis, all the barbs arising from a See also:

• COMMON

common centre . Filoplumes are degenerate structures having a superficial resemblance to hairs, but they always bear a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute vane at the tip . They occur in all birds, in clusters of varying number, about the bases of contour feathers .

In some birds they attain a great length, and may project beyond the contour feathers, sometimes forming conspicuous See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white patches, as for example in the necks of cormorants . In their See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early stages of development they often possess a large aftershaft made up of a number of barbs, but these quickly disappear, leaving only the degenerate main shaft . The eyelashes and bristles See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the mouth found in many birds appear to be akin to filoplumes . Powder-down feathers are degenerate down-feathers which appear to secrete a dry, waxy See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of powder . This powder rapidly disintegrates and becomes distributed over the plumage, adding thereto a quite See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom . In birds of the See also:

• HERON (Fr. heron; Ital. aghirone, airone; Lat. ardea; Gr. ipw&bs: A.-S. hragra; Icelandic, hegre; Swed. hager; Dan. heire; Ger. Heiger, Reiher, Heergans; Dutch, reiger)

heron tribe powder-down feathers have reached a high degree of development, forming large patches in the See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast and thighs, while in some See also:

• HAWKS, FRANCIS LISTER (1798-1866)

hawks, and in the parrots, these mysterious feathers are scattered singly over the greater part of the body . The nature of the covering of nestling birds is of a more complex character than has hitherto been suspected . The Nestling See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young birds, as is well known, either down. emerge from the See also:

• EGG (O.E. aeg, cf. Ger. Ei, Swed. aegg, and prob. Gr. u,ov, Lat. ovum)
• EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863)

egg clothed in down-feathers, or they develop these within a See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day or two afterwards . But this covering, though superficially similar in all, may, as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of fact, differ widely in its constitution, even in closely related forms, while only in a very few See also:

• SPECIES

species can the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• HISTORY

history of these feathers be made out . The See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown or tawny See also:

• OWL (O. Eng. Ule, Swed. Uggla, Ger. Eule—all allied to Lat. Ulula, and evidently of imitative origin)

owl (Syrnium aluco) is one of these . At hatching, the young of this species is thickly clad in white, woolly down-feathers, of the character known as umbelliformthat is to say, the central axis or main shaft is wanting, so that the barbs all start from a common centre . These feathers x .

8occupy the.position of the ultimate contour feathers . They are shortly replaced by a second down-See also:

• DIKE, or DYKE (Old Eng. dic, a word which appears in various forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch dijk, German Teich, Danish dige, and in French, derived from Teutonic, digue; it is the same word as " ditch " and is ultimately connected with the ro

dike covering, superficially resembling, and generally regarded as, true down . But they differ in that their barbs See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring from a central axis as in typical contour feathers . Feathers of this last description indeed have now made their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance in the shape of the " flight " or quill feathers (remiges) and of the tail feathers . This plumage is worn until the autumn, when the downy feathers give See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to the characteristic adult plumage . The down feathers which appear at hatching-See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time are known as pee- pennae, or pre-plumulae, as the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case may be; the first See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation of pre-pennae, in the case of the tawny owl for example, is made up of protoptyles, while the succeeding plumage is made up of mesoptyles, and these in turn give place to the teleoptyles or adult feathers . The two forms of nestling plumage—pre-pennae and pre-plumulaemay be collectively called " neossoptyles," a See also:

• TERM

term coined by H . F . Gadow to distinguish the plumage of the nestling from that of the adult—the teleoptyle " plumage . As a See also:

• RULE

rule the nestling develops but one of these generations of neossoptyles, and this generally answers to the mesoptyle plumage, though this is of a degenerate type . In some birds, as in the Megapodes, the " protoptyle " or first of these two generations of pre-pennae is developed and See also:

• SHED

shed while the chick is yet in the See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

shell, so that at hatching the mesoptyle plumage is well developed . But in the majority of birds, probably, the mesoptyle plumage only is developed, while the earlier, and apparently more degenerate, See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress is suppressed .

In the penguins both of these nestling plumages are developed, but the mesoptyle dress has degenerated so that umbelliform feathers now take the place of feathers having a central axis . The Anatidae show traces of the earlier, first generation of feathers in one or two species only, e.g . Cloephaga rubidiceps . In all the remaining species mesoptyles only occur . And this is true also of the See also:

• GAME

game-birds . In both the Tinamous, the See also:

• DUCK

duck-tribe and the game-birds this mesoptyle plumage shows, in different species, every gradation between feathers having a well-developed main shaft and aftershaft, and those which are See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere umbelliform tufts . As development proceeds and the contour feathers make their appearance' they thrust the mesoptyle feathers out of their follicles—the pockets in the skin in which they were rooted—and these will often be found adhering to the tips of the contour feathers for many See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks after the See also:

• BIRD

bird has See also:

• LEFT

left the See also:

• NEST

nest . This occurs because the development of the contour feather begins before that of the mesoptyles has completed . The plumage in nestling birds is still futher complicated by the fact that it may be almost, or entirely, composed of pre-plumulae; that is to say, of down-feathers which are later succeeded by adult down feathers . This is the case among the accipitrine birds for example, and thereby it differs entirely from that of the owls, which develop neither pre-plumulae nor adult down . The cormorants are, so far as is known, the only birds which have a nestling plumage composed entirely of pre-plumulae . In variety and brilliancy the See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours of birds are not surpassed by those of any other See also:

• GROUP

group of animals .

Yet the See also:

• PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmentum, from pingere, to paint)

pigments to which these colours are due are but few in number, while a large number of the most resplendent hues The colours of are produced by structural peculiarities of the feathers. colourless horny surface of the feathers, and hence are known as subjective or See also:

• OPTICAL

optical colours . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour pigments are (a) melanin pigments, derived possibly from the haemoglobin of the See also:

• BLOOD

blood, but more probably from the blood plasma, and (b) lipochrome or " See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat " pigments, which are regarded as reserve products; though in the case of birds it is exceedingly doubtful whether they have this significance . The melanin pigments (zoomelanin) occur in the form of granules and give rise to the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, brown and See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey tones; or they may combine with those of the lipochrome series . The lipochrome pigments (zoonerythrin and zooxanthin) tend to be diffused throughout the substance of the feather, and give rise respectively to the red and yellow colours . II In addition to these must be reckoned turacin, a reddish-See also:

• PURPLE

purple pigment consisting of the same elements as zoomelanin, but remarkable for the fact that it contains from 5 to 8% of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper, which can be extracted by a weak alkaline See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution, such as See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia, and with the addition of acetic See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid it can be filtered off as a metallic red or See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue powder . The presence of metallic copper is indicated by the See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame of these red feathers when burnt . Turacin was discovered by See also:

• SIR

Sir A . H . See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church in the quill-feathers of the wings of Touracoes or " See also:

• PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago)

plantain eaters." These feathers, he showed, lose their colour after they have become wet, but regain it on drying . But turacin is not, as was supposed, confined to the feathers of the plantain eaters, since it has been obtained from a See also:

• CUCKOO

cuckoo, Dasylophus superciliosus . What effect See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food may have on colour in birds in a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state we have no means of knowing, but it is significant that flamingoes and linnets in confinement never regain their See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright hues after their first See also:

• MOULT

moult in captivity . If See also:

• CAYENNE

cayenne See also:

• PEPPER
• PEPPER, WILLIAM (1843–1898)

pepper be mixed with the food of certain strains of canaries, from the time the birds are hatched onwards, the yellow colour of the feathers becomes intensified, till it takes on a deep See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

orange See also:

• HUE

hue .

Bullfinches, if fed on See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp-See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed, turn black . According to See also:

• DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT (1809-1882)
• DARWIN, ERASMUS (1731-1802)

Darwin, the natives of the Amazonian region feed the common green See also:

• PARROT (according to Skeat, from Fr. Perrot or Pies-rot, the diminutive of the proper name Pierrel)

parrot on the fat of large Siluroid fishes, and as a result the feathers become beautifully variegated with red and yellow . Similarly, in the See also:

• MALAY

Malay See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago, the natives of Gilolo See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change the colours of another parrot . With but rare exceptions bright colours are confined to the exposed portions of the plumage, but in some of the Bustards the down is of a bright See also:

• PINK

pink colour . Structural colours include all metallic or prismatic colours, blue, green, white, some yellows, and, in part, glossy black . In metallic feathers the radii (barbules) are modified Structural colours. in various ways, frequently to form flattened, over- lapping plates or tiles, while the surfaces of the plates are either smooth, finely striated or pitted . But, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save only in the case of white feathers, beneath this colourless, glazed See also:

• OUTER

outer coat there is always a layer of pigment . The only green pigment known to occur in feathers is turecoverdin, found in the feathers of the plantain eaters; it contains a relatively large amount of See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, but no copper . In all other cases the green colour of feathers is due to yellow, orange or greyish-brown pigment occurring with a See also:

• SPECIAL

special superstructure consisting of narrow ridges, as in some parrots and pittas (See also:

• ANT
• ANT (O. Eng. aemete, from Teutonic a, privative, and maitan, cut or bite off, i.e. " the biter off "; aemete in Middle English became differentiated in dialect use to (mete, then amte, and so ant, and also to emete, whence the synonym " emmet," now only u

ant-thrushes), or the surface of the barbs and barbules is smooth and transparent, while between it and the pigment there exists a layer of small polygonal, colourless bodies having highly refractory, and often striated, surfaces . Blue is unknown as a pigment in feathers . Blue feathers contain only orange or brownish pigment (Gadow), the blue colour being caused by the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of pigment corpuscles and colourless striated polygonal bodies, as in green feathers . While in many birds the coloration takes the form either of a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform hue or of bands and patches of colour more or less brilliant, in others the coloration is sombre, and made up of dark See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal stripes or transverse bars on a lighter ground .

The latter is the more See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, and there seems See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that longitudinal stripes preceded transverse bars . This is indicated by the fact that the nestlings of the more primitive See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups are longitudinally striped, and that young hawks in their first plumage are so striped, while the adults are barred . There is also See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence to show that the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of brilliant plumage began with the See also:

• MALES

males, and has, in many cases, been more or less perfectly acquired by the See also:

• FEMALES

females, and also by the young, as for example in the kingfishers, where parents and offspring See also:

• WEAR

wear the same See also:

• LIVERY

livery . Often, where the parents are alike in plumage, the young wear a different and duller livery, as in the case of the common See also:

• STARLING (0. Eng. staer steam, and slerlyng; Lat. surnus; Fr. etourneau)

starling (Sturnus vulgaris) . But where the See also:

• FEMALE

female differs from the male in coloration the young resemble the female See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent . The physiological explanation of complete disappearance of pigment in adult See also:

• LIFE

life. e.g. See also:

• GANNET (O.E. gavot)

gannet, is not yet apparent . At least once annually birds renew their feathers completely by a See also:

• PROCESS

process known as a moult . Until the new feathers have attained at least half their full length they are invested Moulting in a soft sheath, and, as development proceeds, the sheath breaks up from the tip of the feather downwards, so that for a time the new feathers have almost a See also:

• BRUSH (from Fr. brosse, which, like the English word, means both the undergrowth of a wood and the instrument; if the word in both these meanings is ultimately the same, then the origin is from a bundle of brushwood used as a brush or broom, but this is h
• BRUSH, GEORGE DE FOREST (1855– )

brush-like appearance . Generally this replacement takes place gradually, new and old feathers occurring side by side, and on this See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account it is not always possible to see whether a moult is proceeding without raising the old feathers . The " quill " feathers of the wing and tail are renewed in pairs, so that flight is little, if at all, impaired, the change taking place in the wing from the region of the See also:

• WRIST

wrist inwards, as to the primaries, and from the body outwards, towards the tip of the wing, as to the secondaries . In certain birds, however, as in the duck tribe and the rails, for example, all the quill-feathers of the wing are shed at once, so that for some time flight is impossible . In the penguins this simultaneous method of moulting is carried still further .

That is to say, the old feathers covering the body are not replaced gradually, but en masse . This method of ecdysis is, however, still further remarkable in that the old feathers do not drop out, to be succeeded by spine-like stumps which, later, split at the tip, liberating the barbs of the new feathers . They are, on the contrary, thrust out upon the tips of the new feathers, the barbs of which are never enclosed within an envelope such as that just described . When their growth has practically completed, and not till then, the old feathers are removed in large patches by the aid of the bird's See also:

• BEAK (early forms beke and becke, from Fr. bec, late Lat. beccus, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the Celtic bec and beq, however, are taken from the English)

beak; ex-posing thereby a perfectly developed plumage . In the cassowary, and See also:

• EMEU

emeu, the old feathers similarly adhere for a time to the tips of the new; but in these birds the feathers are moulted singly as in other birds . Some birds moult twice within the See also:

• YEAR

year, the additional moult taking place in the spring, as in the case of the " warblers (Sylviidae) and Limicolae, for example . But when this is the case the spring moult is only partial, since the quill feathers of the wings and the tail feathers are not renewed . At this spring moult a special " nuptial " plumage is often assumed, as for example in many of the Limicolae, e.g. godwits, knots, dunlin, See also:

• RUFF

ruff . The sequel to this See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of assuming a nuptial dress is an interesting one . Briefly, this plumage, at first assumed at the mating See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period by the males only, and doffed soon after the young appear, has become retained for longer and longer periods, so that the succeeding plumage, often conspicuously dull compared with the nuptial dress, is worn only for a few weeks, instead of many months, as in the case of many of the ducks, for example; wherein the males, as soon as the young are hatched, assume what C . See also:

• WATERTON, CHARLES (1782-1865)

Waterton has aptly called an " See also:

• ECLIPSE (Gr. €uheo,tis, falling out of place, failing)

eclipse " dress . This, instead of being worn till the following spring, as in the waders, is shed again in the autumn and replaced by what answers to the waders' " nuptial " dress .

In the game-birds but a trace of this " eclipse " plumage remains; and this, apparently, only in See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle-See also:

• FOWL (Dan. Fugl, Ger. Vogel)

fowl, the common grey See also:

• PARTRIDGE (Du. Patrijs, Fr. perdrix, from Lat. perdix, apparently onomatopoeic from the call of the bird)
• PARTRIDGE, JOHN BERNARD (1861– )
• PARTRIDGE, WILLIAM ORDWAY (1861– )

partridge (Perdix cinerea) and the See also:

• BLACKCOCK (Tetrao tetrix)

blackcock (Lyrurus), in whose case the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head and See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck for a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short period following the breeding See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season are clothed only by dull feathers . Further, this more highly developed plumage becomes transferred, first to the female, then to the young, so that, in many groups, the dull phase of plumage is entirely eliminated . But the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption at the breeding season of a conspicuously brilliant plumage is not always due to a moult . In many birds, notably many Passerines, this change is brought about by shedding the tips of the feathers, which are of a duller hue than the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the feather . In this way the bright See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose pink of the See also:

• LINNET, O

linnet's breast, the blue and black head of the See also:

• CHAFFINCH (Fringilla coelebs)

chaffinch, and the black See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat and See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut-and-black markings of the back of the See also:

• SPARROW (0. Eng. spearwa; Icel. sporr; O.H.G. Sparo)

sparrow, are assumed—to mention but a few instances . These birds moult but once' a year, in the autumn, when the new feathers have broad brown fringes; as the spring advances these drop off, and with them the barhicels from the barbules of the upper surface of the feather, thus revealing the hidden tints . According to some authorities, however, some birds acquire a change of colour without a moult by the ascent of pigment from the base of the feather . The black head assumed by many gulls in the spring is, for example, said to be gained in this way . There is, however, not only no good evidence in support of the contention, but the whole structure of the feather is against the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of any such change taking place . Feathers correspond with the scales of See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles rather than with the hairs of mammals, as is shown by their development . They make their first appearance in the developing chick at The de- about the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth day of See also:

• INCUBATION

incubation, in the shape of small velopment papillae . In section each papilla is found to be made up of feathers. of a cluster of dermal cells—that is to say, of cells of the deeper layer of the skin—capped by cells of the epidermis .

These last form a single superficial layer of flattened cells—the epitrichiumoverlaying the cells of the Malpighian layer, which are cylindrical in shape and rapidly increase to form several layers . As development proceeds the papillae assume a See also:

• CONE (Gr. Kwvos)

cone-shape with its See also:

• APEX

apex directed backwards, while the base of this cone sinks down into the skin, or rather is carried down by the growth of the Malpighian cells, so that the cone is now sunk in a deep See also:

• PIT (O. E. pytt, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutze, &c., all ultimately adaptations of Lat. puteus, well, formed from root pu-, to cleanse, whence gurus, clean, pure)

pit . Thereby these Malpighian cells become divided into two portions: (i) those taking part in the formation of the walls of the pit or " feather follicle," and (2) those enclosed within the cone . These last surround the central See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass or core formed by the dermis . This mass constitutes the nutritive pulp for the development of the growing feather, and is highly vascular . The cells of the Malpighian layer within the cone now become differentiated into three layers . (i) An inner, extremely thin, forming a delicate sheath for the pulp, and found in the fully developed feather in the form of a series of hollow, transparent caps enclosed within the calamus; (2) a thick layer which forms the feather itself; and (3) a thin layer which forms the investing sheath of the feather . It is this sheath which gives the curious spine-covered character to many nestling birds and birds in moult . As growth proceeds the cells of this See also:

• MIDDLE

middle layer arrange themselves in longitudinal rows to form the barbs, while the barbules are formed by a secondary splitting . At their bases these rudimentary barbs meet to form the calamus . Finally the tips of the barbs break through the investing sheath and the fully formed down-feather emerges . A part of the pulp and Malpighian cells remains over after the complete growth of the down-feather, and from this succeeding generations of feathers are developed .

The process of this development differs from that just outlined chiefly in this: that of the longitudinal rows which in the down-feather form the barbs, two on the dorsal and two on the ventral aspect of the interior of the See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder become stronger than the rest, combining to form the main-and after-shaft respectively . The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the rods form the barbs and barbules as in the down-feather . The reproductive See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the feather follicle appears to be almost inexhaustible, since it is not diminished appreciably by See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, nor restricted to definite moulting periods, as is shown by the cruel and now obsolete See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of plucking geese alive, no less than three times annually, for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of their feathers . The growth of the feathers is, however, certainly affected by the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• HEALTH

health of the bird, mal-See also:

• NUTRITION

nutrition causing the appearance of peculiar transverse V-shaped grooves, at more or less See also:

• REGULAR

regular intervals, along the whole length of the feather . These are known as " See also:

• HUNGER

hunger-marks," a name given by falconers, to whom this defect was well known . It would seem that while the feather germ may be artificially stimulated to produce three successive generations of feathers within a year, it may, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, be induced artificially to maintain a continuous activity extending over long periods . That is to say, the normal quiescent period, and periodic moult, may be suspended, so that the feather maintains a steady and continuous growth till it attains a length of several feet . The only known instance of this kind is that furnished by a domesticated breed of jungle-fowl known as the " See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese long-tailed fowls " or as " Yokohamas." In this breed the upper tail coverts are in some way, as yet unknown to Europeans, induced to go on growing until they have attained a length of from 12 to i8 or even 20 ft . ! In this abnormal growth the " hackles " of the lower part of the back also See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share, though they do not attain a similar length . The feathers of birds are not uniformly distributed over the body, but grow only along certain definite tracts known as pterylae, leaving See also:

• BARE

bare spaces or apteria . These pterylae differ considerably in their conformation in different groups of birds, and hence are of service in systematic See also:

• ORNITHOLOGY

ornithology . The principal pterylae are as follows: (i) The head See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract (pt. capilis), which embraces the head only .

(2) The See also:

• SPINAL

spinal tract (pt. spinalis), which extends the whole length of the See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column . It is one of the most variable in its modifications, especially in so far as the region from the base of the neck to the tail is concerned . In its simplest form it runs down the hack in the form of a See also:

• BAND

band of almost uniform width, but generally it227 expands considerably in the lumbar region, as in Passeres . Frequently it is divided into two portions; an upper, terminating in the region of the middle of the back in a See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork, and a lower, which commences either as a fork, e.g. See also:

• PLOVER

plover, barbet, or as a median hand, e.g. See also:

• SWALLOW (A. S. swalewe, Icel. svala, Du. zwaluw, Ger. Schwalbe)

swallow . Very commonly the dorsal region of this tract encloses a more or less extensive featherless space (apterion), e.g. See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift, See also:

• AUK

auk . While, as a rule, the dorsal region of this tract is relatively narrow, it is in some of great breadth, e.g. See also:

• GREBE (Fr. grebe)

grebe, See also:

• PIGEON

pigeon, coly . (3) The ventral tract (pt. ventralis), which presents almost as many See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations as the spinal tract . In its simplest form it runs from the throat backwards in the form of a median band as far as the base of the neck where it divides, sending a branch to each side of the breast . This branch commonly again divides into a short, broad outer branch which lodges the " flank' feathers, and a long, narrow, inner branch which runs backwards to join its See also:

• FELLOW

fellow of the opposite side in front of the cloacal See also:

• APERTURE (from Lat. aperire, to open)

aperture . This branch lodges the abdominal feathers . The median space which divides the inner branches of the tract may be continued forwards as far as the middle of the neck, or even up to the throat, e.g. plover . Only in a few cases is the neck continuously covered by the See also:

• FUSION

fusion of the dorsal and ventral tracts, e.g. See also:

• FLAMINGO (Port. Flamingo, Span. Flamenco)

flamingo, Anseres, Ciconidac, Pygopodes .

For convenience sake the cervical portions of the spinal and ventral tracts are generally regarded as separate tracts, the pt. colli dorsalis and pt. colli ventralis respectively . (4) The humeral tract (pt. humeralis), which gives rise to the " scapular " feathers . (5) The femoral tract (pt. femoralis), which forms an oblique hand across the thigh . (6) The crural tract (pt. cruralis), which clothes the rest of the See also:

• LEG
• LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. lagg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank)

leg . (7) The tail tract (pt. caudalis), including the tail feathers and their coverts; and (8) The wing tract (pt. alaris) . The wing tract presents many peculiar features . Each segment—See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm, forearm and hand—bears feathers essential to flight, and these are divided into remiges, or " quill " feathers, and tectrices, or " coverts." The remiges of the arm, more commonly described as " See also:

• TERTIARIES (Lat. tertiarii, from tertius, third)

tertiaries," are, technically, collectively known as the parapteron and hypopteron, and are composed respectively of long, quill-like feathers forming a double series, the former arranged along the upper, and the latter along the lower aspect of the humerus . They serve to fill up the See also:

• GAP

gap which, in long-winged birds, would otherwise occur during flight between the quill-feathers of the forearm and the body, a gap which would make flight impossible . In short-winged birds these two series are extremely reduced . The remiges range in number from i6, as in humming-birds, to 48 as in the See also:

• ALBATROSS (from the Port. Alcatraz, a pelican)

albatross, according, in short, to the length of the wing . But these numerical See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences depend, in flying birds, rather upon the length of the forearm, since the quills of the hand never exceed 12 and never fall below to, though the tenth may be reduced to a mere vestige . The quills of the forearm are known as " secondaries," those of the hand as " primaries." The former are attached by their bases at relatively wide distances apart to the ulna, while the primaries are crowded See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together and attached to the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton of the hand .

The six or seven which rest upon the fused metacarpals II.–III. are known as " metacarpals." The next succeeding feather is See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne by the See also:

• PHALANX (Gr. /&Xa'y, , of unknown origin)

phalanx of See also:

• DIGIT (Lat. digit us, finger)

digit III. and hence is known as the addigital . Phalanx i. of digit II. always supports two quills, the "middigitals," while the remaining feathers—one or two—are borne by the last phalanx of digit II. and are known as pre-digitals, while the whole series of primaries are known as the metacarpo-digitals . In their relation one to another the remiges, it must be noted, are always so placed that they overlap one another, the See also:

• FREE

free edge of each, when the wing is seen from its upper surface, being turned towards the tip of the wing . Thus, in flight, the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air passes through the wing as it is raised, while in the downstroke the feathers are forced together to form a homogeneous surface . Birds which See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly much have the outer primaries of great length, giving the wing a pointed shape, as in swifts, while in species which fly but little, or frequent thickets, the outer primaries are very short, giving the wing a rounded appearance . This See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation to environment is commonly lost sight of by taxonomers, who not infrequently use the form of the wing as a See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification . The tectrices, or covert feathers of the wing, are arranged in several series, decreasing in See also:

• SIZE

size from behind forwards . The number of rows on the dorsal aspect and the method of their overlap, afford characters of general importance in classification . Fin . 2.—Pterylosis of the plover . The first See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row of the series is formed by the See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major coverts; these, like the primaries, have their free-edges directed towards the tip of the wing, and hence are said to have a distal overlap . The next row is formed by the median coverts .

These, on the forearm, commonly overlap as to the outer half of the row distally, and as to the inner half proximally . On the hand this series is incomplete . Beyond the median are four or five rows of coverts known as the See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor coverts . These may have either a proximal or a distal overlap . The remaining rows of small feathers are known as the marginal coverts, and they always have a distal overlap . The three or four large quill-like feathers borne by the thumb form what is known as the "See also:

• BASTARD (O. Fr. bastard, mod. bdtard = fits de bast, "pack-saddle child," from bast, saddle)

bastard-wing," See also:

• ALA

ala spuria . The coverts of the under follow an arrangement similar to that of the upper surface, but the minor coverts are commonly but feebly developed, leaving a more or less bare space which is covered by the great See also:

• ELONGATION

elongation of the marginal series . One noteworthy fact about the coverts of the under side of the wing is that all save the major and median coverts have what answers to the dorsal surfaces of the feather turned towards the body, and what answers to the ventral surface of the feather turned towards the under surface of the wing . In the major and median coverts, however, the ventral surfaces of these feathers are turned ventral-wards, that is to say, in the extended wing they, like the remiges, have the ventral surfaces turned downwards or towards the body in the closed wing . . But the most remarkable fact in connexion with the pterylosis of the wing is the fact that in all, save the Passerine and Galliform types, and some few other isolated exceptions, the secondary series of remiges appears always to lack the fifth remex, counting from the wrist inwards, inasmuch as, when such wings are examined, there is always found, in the place of the fifth remex, a pair of major coverts only, while throughout the rest of the series each such pair of coverts embraces a quill . This extraordinary fact was first discovered by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French naturalist Z . Gerbe, and was later rediscovered by R .

S . Wray . Neither of these, however, was able to offer any explanation thereof . This, however, has since been attempted, simultaneously, by P . C . See also:

• MITCHELL
• MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822—1908)
• MITCHELL, MARIA (1818—1889)
• MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830-)
• MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (1792-1855)

Mitchell and W . P . Pycraft . The former has aptly coined the word diastataxic to denote the gap in the series, and eutaxic to denote such wings as have an uninterrupted series of quills . While both authors agree that there is no evidence of any loss in the number of the quills in diastataxic wings, they differ in the See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation as to which of the two conditions is the more primitive and the means by which the gap has been brought about . According to Mitchell the diastataxic is the more primitive See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, and he has conclusively shown a way in which diastataxic wings may become eutaxic . Pycraft on the other hand contends that the diastataxic wing has been derived from the eutaxic type, and has produced evidence showing, on the one hand, the method by which this transition is effected, and on the other that by which the diastataxic wing may again recover the eutaxic condition, though in this last particular the evidence adduced by Mitchell is much more complete .

The matter is, however, one of considerable difficulty, but is well See also:

• WORTH
• WORTH, CHARLES FREDERICK (1825-1895)

worth further investigation . The wings of struthious birds differ from those of the Carinatae, just described, in many ways . All are degenerate and quite useless as See also:

• ORGANS

organs of flight . In some cases indeed they have become reduced to mere vestiges . Those of the ostrich and See also:

• RHEA

Rhea are the least degraded . In the ostrich See also:

• ANKYLOSIS, or ANCYYLOSIS (from Gr. ayKVXos, bent, crooked)

ankylosis has prevented the flexion of the hand at the wrist See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint so that the quills—primaries and secondaries—form an unbroken series of about See also:

• FORTY

forty in number . Of these sixteen belong to the primary or metacarpo-digital series, a number exceeding that of any other bird . What the significance of this may be with regard to the primitive wing it is impossible to say at See also:

• PRESENT

present . The coverts, in their disposition, bear a general resemblance to those of Carinate wings; but they differ on account of the great length of the feathers and the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any definite overlap . The wing of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICAN

American Rhea more nearly resembles that of flying birds since the hand can be flexed at the wrist joint, and the primaries are twelve in number, as in grebes, and some storks, for example . The coverts, as in the See also:

• AFRICAN

African ostrich, are remarkable for their great length, those representing the major series being as long as the remiges,a fact probably due to the shortening of the latter . They are not, however, arranged in quincunx, as is the rule among the Carinatae, but in parallel, transverse rows, in which respect they resemble the owls .

In both ostrich and Rhea, as well as in all the other struthious birds, the under surface of the wing is entirely bare . The wing of the cassowary, emeu and apteryx has undergone complete degeneration; so much so that only a vestige of the hand remains . Remiges in the cassowary are represented by a few spine-like shafts—three primaries and two secondaries . These are really hypertrophied calami . This is shown by the fact that in the nestling these remiges have a normal calamus, rhachis and vane; but as development proceeds the rhachis with its vane sloughs off, while the calamus becomes enormously lengthened and solid . In the emeu the wing is less atrophied than in the cassowary,but is not yet completely degenerate . Altogether seventeen remiges are represented, of which seven correspond to primaries . Since, however, these feathers have each an aftershaft as long as the main shaft—like the rest of the body feathers—it may be that they See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer not to remiges, but to major coverts . The wing of apteryx, like that of the cassowary, has become extremely reduced . The remiges are thirteen in number, four of which answer to primaries . These feathers are specially interesting, inasmuch as they retain throughout life a See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage corresponding to that seen in the very young cassowary, the calamus being greatly swollen, and supporting a very degenerate rhachis and vane . The penguins afford another See also:

• OBJECT

object-See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson in degeneration of this kind .

Here the wing has become transformed into a See also:

• PADDLE

paddle, clothed on both sides with a covering of small, close-set feathers . A pollex is wanting, as in the cassowary, emeu and apteryx, while it is impossible to say whether remiges are represented or not . For General Reference as to Structure, Colour, Development and Pterylosis.—H . Gadow, in See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton's See also:

• DICTIONARY

Dictionary of Birds (1896); W . P . Pycraft, " The Interlocking of the Barbs of Feathers," Natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science (1893) . On the Colours of Feathers.—J . L . Bonhote, " On Moult and Colour Change in Birds," See also:

• IBIS

Ibis (1900); A . H . Church, " Researches on Turacin, an See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Animal Pigment containing Copper," Phil . Trans. clix .

(187o), pt. ii . ; H . Gadow, " The Coloration of Feathers as affected by Structure," Proc . Zool . See also:

• SOC

Soc . (1882); Newbegin, Colour in Nature (1898) ; R . M . Strong, " The Development of Color in the Definitive Feather," See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull . See also:

• MISS

Miss . Zool . Harvard See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

College, vol. xl . On Moulting.—J .

See also:

• DWIGHT, JOHN (d. 1703)
• DWIGHT, JOHN SULLIVAN (1813-1893)
• DWIGHT, THEODORE WILLIAM (1822-1892)
• DWIGHT, TIMOTHY (1752-1817)

Dwight, " The Sequences of Plumage and Moults of the Passerine Birds of New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York," See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals N . Y . Acad . Sci., vol. xiii . (1900) ; W . E . De Winton, " On the Moulting of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• PENGUIN

Penguin," Proc . Zool . Soc . (1898–1899) ; \V . P . Pycraft, " On some Points in the See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

Anatomy of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

Emperor and Adelie Penguins,"See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

Report See also:

• NATIONAL

National See also:

• ANTARCTIC
• ANTARCTIC (Gr. &vri, opposite, and apKTos, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Antarctic Expedition, vol. ii .

(1907) . On Development of Embryonic, Nestling and Adult Feathers.—T . H . See also:

• STUDER, BERNHARD (1794-1887)

Studer, " See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

Die Entwicklung der Federn," Inaug.-See also:

• DISS

Diss . (See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, 1873); " Beitrage zur Entwickl. der Feder," Zeitsch. f. wiss . Zool., Bd. See also:

• XXX

xxx . ; T . See also:

• CUNNINGHAM, ALEXANDER (c.1655-173o)
• CUNNINGHAM, ALLAN (1784-1842)
• CUNNINGHAM, WILLIAM (1805-1861)

Cunningham, " Observations and Experiments on Japanese one-tailed Fowls," Proc . Zool . Soc . (1903) ; H . R .

See also:

• DAVIES (DAvIslus), JOHN (1679-1732)
• DAVIES, DAVID CHARLES (1826-1891)
• DAVIES, RICHARD (c. 1505—1581)
• DAVIES, SIR JOHN (1569-1626)
• DAVIES, SIR LOUIS HENRY (1845— )

Davies, " Beitrag zur Entwicklung der Feder," Morph . Jahrb. xiv . (1888), xv . (1889); W . P . Pycraft, " A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the See also:

• MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

Morphology of the Owls," Trans . Linn . Soc . (1898) ; W . P . Pycraft, " A Contribution towards our Knowledge of the Pterytography of the Megapodii," Report Willey's Zoological Results, pt. iv . (1900); W .

P . Pycraft, " Nestling Birds and some of the Problems they Present," See also:

• BRITISH

British Birds (1907) . On Pterylosis.—H . Gadow, " Remarks on the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

Numbers and on the Phylogenetic Development of the Remiges of Birds," Proc . Zool . Soc . (1888) ; Z . Gerbe, " Sur See also:

• LES

les plumes du vol at leur mue," Bull . Soc . Zool . See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, vol. ii . (1877); J .

G . Goodchild, " The Cubital Coverts of the Euornithae in relation to Taxonomy," Proc . See also:

• ROY, WILLIAM (1726-1790)

Roy . Phys . Edinb. vol. x . (1890–1891); Meijere, " Uber die Federn der See also:

• VOGEL, EDUARD (1829-1856)
• VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899)

Vogel," Morphol . Jahrb. See also:

• XXIII

xxiii . (1895) ; P . C . Mitchell, " On so-called ' Quintocubitalism ' in the Wing of Birds," Journ . Linn . Soc .

Zool. vol. See also:

• XXVII

xxvii . (1899); " On the Anatomy of the Kingfishers, with special reference to the Conditions known as Eutaxy and Diastataxy," Ibis (1901); C . L . See also:

• NITZSCH, GREGOR WILHELM (179x-1861)
• NITZSCH, KARL IMMANUEL (1787-1868)

Nitzsch, " Pterytography," See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray Soc . (1867); W . P . Pycraft, " Some Facts concerning the so-called ' Aquintocubitalism ' of the Bird's Wing," Journ . Linn . Soc. vol. xxvii . ; C . J . Sundevall, " On the Wings of Birds," Ibis (1886) ; R .

S . Wray, " On some Points in the Morphology of the Wings of Birds," Proc . Zool . Soc . (1887) . (\V . P . P.) Commercial Applications of Feathers.—The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief purposes for which feathers become commercially valuable may be comprehended under four divisions: (1) See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed and upholstery feathers; (2) quills for See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing; (3) ornamental feathers; and (4) See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous uses of feathers . Bed and Upholstery Feathers.—The qualities which render feathers available for stuffing beds, cushions, &c., are lightness, See also:

• ELASTICITY

elasticity, freedom from See also:

• MATTING

matting and softness . These are combined in the most satisfactory degree in the feathers of the See also:

• GOOSE (a common Teut. word, O. Eng. gOs, pl. ges, Ger. Gans, O. Norse gas, from Aryan root, ghans, whence Sans. hansa, Lat. anser (for hanser)
• GOOSE (GAME OF)

goose and of several other allied aquatic birds, whose bodies are protected with a warm downy covering . Goose feather.. and down, when plucked in spring from the living bird, are most esteemed, being at once more elastic, cleaner and less liable to taint than those obtained from the bodies of killed geese . The down of the See also:

• EIDER
• EIDER (Icelandic, idur)

eider duck, Anas mollissima, is valued above all other substances for lightness, softness and elasticity ; but it has some tendency to See also:

• MAT (O. Eng. meatt, from late Lat. mattes, whence Ital. mallet, Ger. and Dan. matte, Du. mat, &c.)

mat, and is consequently more used for quilts and in articles of clothing than unmixed for stuffing beds .

The feathers of swans, ducks and of the common domestic fowl are also largely employed for beds ; but in the case of the latter bird, which is of course non-aquatic, the feathers are harsher and less downy than are those of the natatorial birds generally . Feathers which possess strong or stiff shafts cannot without some preliminary preparation be used for stuffing purposes, as the stiff points they present would not only be highly uncomfortable, but would also See also:

• PIERCE, FRANKLIN (1804—1869)

pierce and cause the See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of the feathers from any covering in which they might be enclosed . The barbs are therefore stripped or cut from these feathers, and when so prepared they, in common with soft feathers and See also:

• DOWNS

downs, undergo a careful process of drying and cleaning, without which they would acquire an offensive See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell, readily attract See also:

• DAMP

damp, and See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour See also:

• VERMIN (Fr. vermine, formed as if from Lat. verminus, vcrmis, a worm)

vermin . The drying is generally done in highly heated apartments or stoves, and subsequently the feathers are smartly beaten with a stick, and shaken in a See also:

• SIEVE (O.E. sife, older sibi, cf. Dutch zeef, Ger. Sieb; from the subst. comes O.E. siftan, to sift)

sieve to separate all dust and small debris . Quills for Writing.—The earliest period at which the use of quill feathers for writing purposes is recorded is the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; and from that time till the introduction of See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel pens in the early part of the 19th century they formed the principal writing implements of civilized communities . It has always been from the goose that quills have been chiefly obtained, although the See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

swan, See also:

• CROW (Dutch, kraal, Ger. Krdhe, Fr. corbeau, Lat. corvus)

crow, See also:

• EAGLE (Fr. aigle, from the Lat. aquila)

eagle, owl, See also:

• HAWK (O. Eng. hafoc or heafoc, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch havik, Ger. Habicht; the root is hab-, haf-, to hold, cf. Lat. accipiter, from capere)

hawk and See also:

• TURKEY

turkey all have more or less been laid under contribution . Swan quills, indeed are better and more costly than are those from the goose, and for See also:

• FINE

fine lines crow quills have been much employed . Only the five outer wing feathers of the goose are useful for writing, and of these the second and third are the best, while left-wing quills are also generally more esteemed than those of the right wing, from the fact that they See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve outward and away from the writer using them . Quills obtained in spring, by plucking or otherwise, from living birds are by far the best, those taken from dead geese, more especially if fattened, being comparatively worthless . To take away the natural greasiness to remove the superficial and See also:

• INTERNAL

internal pellicles of skin, and to give the necessary qualities of hardness and elasticity, quills require to undergo some processes of preparation . The essential operation consists in See also:

• HEATING

heating them, generally in a fine See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand-See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath, to from 13o° to 18o° F. according to circumstances, and scraping them under pressure while still soft from See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, whereby the outer skin is removed and the inner shrivelled up . If the heating has been properly effected, the quills are found on cooling to have become hard, elastic and somewhat brittle .

While the quills are soft and hot, See also:

• LOZENGE (from the Fr. losenge, or losange; the word also appears in Span. losanje, and Ital. losanga; perhaps derived from a word meaning a stone slab laid on a grave, which appears in forms such as Provencal lousa, Span. losa, the ultimate origin of whic

lozenge-shaped patterns, ornamental designs, and names are easily and permanently impressed on them by pressure with suitable See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments or designs in See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal stamps . Ornamental Feathers.—Feathers do not appear to have been much used, in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe at least, for ornamental purposes till the close of the 13th century . They are found in the conical caps worn in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England during the reigns of See also:

• EDWARD

Edward III. and See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard II.; but not till the period of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry V. did they take their place as a part of military See also:

• COSTUME
• COSTUME (through the Fr. costume, from Ital. costume, Late Lat. costuma, a contracted form of Lat. consuetudinem, ace. of consuetudo, custom, habit, manner, &c.)

costume . Towards the close of the 15th century the fashion of wearing feathers in both See also:

• CIVIL

civil and military life was carried to an almost ludicrous excess . In the time of Henry VIII. they first appeared in the bonnets of ladies; and during See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth's reign feathers began to occupy an important place as head-dress ornaments of See also:

• WOMEN

women . From that time down to the present, feathers of endless variety have continued to be leading articles of ornamentation in female head-attire; but, except for military plumes, they have long ceased to be worn in See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary male costume . At the present day, the feathers of numerous birds are, in one way or another, turned to account by ladies for the purpose of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• ORNAMENT (Lat. ornare, to adorn)

ornament . Ostrich feathers, however, hold, as they have always held, a pre-eminent position among ornamental feathers; and the ostrich is the only bird which may be said to be reared exclusively for the sake of its feathers . Ostrich farming is one of the established See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries of South See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, and is also practised in See also:

• KORDOFAN

Kordofan and other semi-See also:

• DESERT

desert regions of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Africa, in See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina, and in See also:

• ARIZONA (from the Spanish-Indian Arizonac, of unknown meaning,—possibly " few springs,"-the name of an 18th-century mining camp in the Santa Cruz valley, just S. of the present border of Arizona)

Arizona and See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California in North See also:

• AMERICA

America . The feathers are generally plucked from the living animal—a process which does not appear to cause any great inconvenience . In the male bird, the long feathers of the rump and wings are white, and the short feathers of the body are See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet black; while the rump andwing feathers of the female are white tinged with a dusky grey, the general body colour being the latter hue . The feathers of the male are consequently much more valuable than those of the female, and they are separately classified in See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce .

The See also:

• ART

art of the plumassier embraces the cleaning, See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching, See also:

• DYEING (0. Eng. dedgian, dealt ; Mid. Eng. deyen)

dyeing, See also:

• CURLING
• CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD (1811-1888)

curling and making up of ostrich and other plumes and feathers . White feathers are simply washed in bundles in hot soapy See also:

• WATER

water, run through pure warm water, exposed to sulphurous fumes for bleaching, thereafter blued with See also:

• INDIGO (earlier indico, from Lat. indicum, the Indian sub-stance or dye; the Sans. name was niti, from nila, dark blue, and this through Arab. al-nil, annil, gives " aniline ")

indigo solution, rinsed in pure See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold water, and hung up to dry . When dry the shafts are pared or scraped down to give the feathers greater flexibility, and the barbs are curled by See also:

• DRAWING

drawing them singly over the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of a See also:

• BLUNT, JOHN HENRY (1823–1884)
• BLUNT, JOHN JAMES (1794–1855)
• BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN (184o— )

blunt See also:

• KNIFE (0. E. cuff, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kneif, a shoe-maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip "; Fr. canif is a

knife or by the cautious application of a heated iron . Dull-coloured feathers are usually dyed black . Feathers which are dyed See also:

• LIGHT

light colours are first bleached by exposure in the open air . Much ingenuity is displayed in the making up of plumes, with the general result of producing the appearance of full, See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich, and long feathers from inferior varieties and from scraps and fragments of ostrich feathers; and so dexterously can factitious plumes be prepared that only an experienced See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person is able to detect the fabrication . In addition to those of the ostrich, the feathers of certain other birds form articles of steady commercial demand . Among these are the feathers of the South American ostrich, Rhea americana, the See also:

• MARABOUT (the French form of the Arab. murdbit, " one who pickets his horse on a hostile frontier "; cf. Portug.marabute; Span. morabito)

marabout feathers of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India obtained from Leptoptilos argala and L. javanica, the aigrettes of the heron, the feathers of the various species of birds of See also:

• PARADISE (Gr. lrap6BEwos)

paradise, and of numerous species of humming-birds . Swan-down and the skins of various penguins and grebes and of the albatross are used, like fur, for muffs and collarettes . The See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese excel in the preparation of artificial See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers and other ornaments from bright natural-coloured or dyed feathers; and the French also skilfully See also:

• WORK

work ragments of feathers into bouquets of artificial flowers, See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation butterflies, &c . Miscellaneous Applications of Feathers.—Quills of various sizes are extensively employed as holders for the See also:

• SABLE
• SABLE, AMERICAN
• SABLE, CHINESE
• SABLE, MADELEINE DE SOUVRE, MARQUISE DE (1599—1678)
• SABLE, RUSSIAN

sable and See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair brushes used by artists, &c . Feather brushes and dusters are made from the wing-feathers of the domestic fowl and other birds; those of a See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior quality, under the name of See also:

• VULTURE

vulture dusters, being really made of American ostrich feathers .

A minor application of feathers is found in the dressing of artificial fly-hooks for fishing . As steel pens came into general use it became an object of considerable importance to find applications for the supplanted goose-quills, and a large See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of employment for them was found in the preparation of toothpicks . (J . PA; W . P .