See also:

• FEZZAN (the ancient Phazania, or country of the Garamantes)

FEZZAN (the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Phazania, or See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of the Garamantes)  , a- region of the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara, forming a " kaimakamlik " of the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman vilayet of See also:

• TRIPOLI
• TRIPOLI (Tarabulus el-Gharb, i.e. Tripoli of the West)
• TRIPOLI, or TARABULUS (anc. Tripolis)

Tripoli (q.v.) . Its frontiers, See also:

• ILL

ill-defined, run from Bonjem, within 5o m. of the Mediterranean on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-westward to the Akakus range of hills, which separates See also:

• FEZZAN (the ancient Phazania, or country of the Garamantes)

Fezzan from See also:

• GHAT, or RHAT

Ghat, thence eastward for over 400 in., and then turn north and See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west to Bonjem again, embracing an See also:

• AREA

area of about 156,000 sq. m . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is determined by the ranges of hills, including the See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel-es-Suda (highest See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak about 4000 ft.), the Haruj-el-Aswad and the Haruj-el-Abiad, which between 14° and 19° E. and 27° and 29° N. form the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern edge of a broad See also:

• DESERT

desert See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, and shut off the northern region draining to the Mediterranean from the depressions in which See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the oases of Fezzan proper in the south . The central depression of Hofra (" ditch "), as it is called, lies in about 26° N . It does not form a continuous fertile See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract, but consists of a monotonous sandy expanse somewhat more thickly studded with oases than the surrounding wastes . The Hofra at its lowest See also:

• PART

part is not more than 600 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level, and in this hollow is situated the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital Murzuk . It has a general See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to west direction . North-west of the Hofra is a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long narrow valley, the See also:

• WADI

Wadi-el-Gharbi, which trends north-east and is the most fertile See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Fezzan . It contains several perennial springs and See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake-like basins . One of these basins, the saline See also:

• BAHR

Bahr-el-Dud (" Sea of See also:

• WORMS

Worms "), has an extent of 600 sq. m., and is in places 26 ft. deep . Southwards the Hofra rises to a height of 2000 ft., and in this direction lies the See also:

• OASIS (Gr. &toss, the name given by Herodotus to the fertile spots in the Libyan desert: it probably represents an Egyptian word, cf. Coptic ouahe, ouih, to dwell, from which the Egyptian Arabic sod is derived)

oasis of Gatron, followed by Tejerri on the See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of the desert, which marks the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern limit of the date and the northern of the dum See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm . Beyond Tejerri the Saharan plateau rises continuously to the See also:

• TIBESTI

Tibesti See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands .

(See further TRIPOLI.) Clvmate.—The See also:

• AVERAGE

average temperature of Murzuk was found by See also:

• ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD (1831—1896)

Rohlfs to be 70° F . See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

Frost is not uncommon in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter months . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is a very See also:

• REGULAR

regular one, and is in general healthy, the dryness of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air in summer making the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat more bearable than on the sea See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . An almost perpetual See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky overhangs the desert, and the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of Fezzan are so unaccustomed to and so ill-prepared for wet See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather that, as in See also:

• TUAT

Tuat and Tidikelt, they pray to be spared from See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain . See also:

• WATER

Water is found almost everywhere at small depths . See also:

• FLORA

Flora and See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The date-palm is the characteristic See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of Fezzan, and constitutes the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of the See also:

• LAND

land . Many different kinds of date-palms are found in the oases: in that of Murzuk alone more than 30 varieties are counted, the most esteemed being named the Tillis, Tuati and Auregh . In all Fezzan the date is the See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, not only for men, but for camels, horses and See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs . Even the stones of the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit are softened and given to the See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle . The huts of the poorer classes are entirely made of date-palm leaves, and the more substantial habitations consist chiefly of the same material . The produce of the tree is small, See also:

• ROC

roc, full-grown trees yielding only about 40 cwt. of See also:

• DATES

dates . Besides the date there are numerous See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive, fig and See also:

• ALMOND (from the O. Fr. almande or alemande, late Lat. amandola, derived through a form amingdola from the Gr. l uybian, an almond; the al- for a- is probably due to a confusion with the Arabic article al, the word having first dropped the a- as in the It

almond trees .

Various grains are cultivated . See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

Wheat and See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley are sown in winter, and in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring, summer and autumn several kinds of See also:

• DURRA
• DURRA (also written dourah, dhura, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a grain of corn)

durra, especially ksob and gafoli . See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

Cotton flourishes, is perennial for six or seven years, and gives large pods of moderate length of staple . There are no large See also:

• CARNIVORA

carnivora in Fezzan . In the uninhabited oases gazelles and antelopes are occasionally found . The most important See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal is the See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel, of which there are two varieties, the Tebu or See also:

• SUDAN (Arabic Bilad-es-Sudan, country of the blacks)

Sudan camel and the Arabian, differing very much in See also:

• SIZE

size, form and capabilities . Horses and cattle are not numerous . Among birds are ostriches, falcons, vultures, swallows and ravens; in summer See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild pigeons and ducks are numerous, but in winter they seek a warmer climate . There are no remarkable See also:

• INSECTS

insects or See also:

• SNAKES

snakes . A See also:

• SPECIES

species of Artemia or brine See also:

• SHRIMP

shrimp, about a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch in length, of a See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour resembling the See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright See also:

• HUE

hue of the See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, is fished for with cotton nets in the " Sea of Worms," and mixed with dates and kneaded into a See also:

• PASTE (O. Fr. paste, modern pate, Late Lat. pasta, whence also in Span., Port. and Ital., from Gr. 1r&vrrl or 1raara, barley porridge, or salted pottage, ir&ao'ety, to sprinkle with salt)

paste, which has the See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and See also:

• SMELL (connected etymologically with " smoulder " and " smoke ")

smell of See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring, is considered a luxury by the people of Fezzan; Inhabitants.—The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population is estimated at between 50,000 and 8o,000 . The inhabitants are a mixed people, derived from the surrounding Teda and See also:

• BORNU

Bornu on the south, See also:

• TUAREG, or TAWAREK (more properly Tawarik, the collective form of tarki, from Arabic terek, to give up)

Tuareg of the plateaus on the west, See also:

• BERBERS

Berbers and See also:

• ARABS

Arabs from the north . The See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive inhabitants, called by their Arab conquerors Berauna, are believed to have been of See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

Negro origin .

They no longer persist as a distinct people . In colour the See also:

• PRESENT

present inhabitants vary from See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black to See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white, but the prevailing hue of skin is a See also:

• MALAY

Malay-like yellow, the features and woolly See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair being Negro . The chief See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages are the See also:

• KANURI, or BERIBERI

Kanuri or Bornu See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and Arabic . Many understand Targish, the Teda and the See also:

• HAUSA

Hausa See also:

• TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (yXwova, tongue, aXeiv, speak)

tongues . If among such a mixed people there can be said to be any See also:

• NATIONAL

national language, it is that of Bornu, which is most widely understood and spoken . The people of Sokna, north of the Jebeles-Suda, have a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• BERBER

Berber See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect which Rohlfs found to be very closely allied to that of See also:

• GHADAMES, GADAMES

Ghadames . The men See also:

• WEAR

wear a See also:

• HAIK (an Arabic word, from hak, to weave)

haik or barakan like those of Tripoli, and a See also:

• FEZ (Fes)

fez; See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short See also:

• HOSE (a word common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch, hoes, stocking, Ger. Hose, breeches, tights; the ultimate origin is unknown)

hose, and a large loose See also:

• SHIRT

shirt called mansaria, with red or yellow slippers, See also:

• COMPLETE

complete their See also:

• TOILET

toilet . Yet one often See also:

• SEES

sees the large blue or white See also:

• LOBE

Lobe of Bornu, and the litham or See also:

• SHAWL

shawl-muffler of the Tuareg, See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the mouth to keep out the blown See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand of the desert . The See also:

• WOMEN

women, who so long as they are See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young have very plump forms, and who are generally small, are more simply dressed, as a See also:

• RULE

rule, in the barakan, wound round their bodies; they seldom wear shoes, but generally have sandals made of palm See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf . Like the Arab women they load arms and legs with heavy See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal rings, which are of See also:

• SILVER

silver among the more wealthy . The hair, thickly greased with See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter, soon catching the dust which forms a crust over it, is done up in numberless little plaits round the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, in the same See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion as in Bornu and the Hausa countries . See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

Children run about naked until they attain the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of See also:

• PUBERTY (Lat. pubertas, from pubes, puber, mature, adult)

puberty, which comes very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early, for mothers of ten or twelve years of age are not uncommon .

The Fezzani are of a See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

gay disposition, much given to See also:

• MUSIC

music and dancing . Towns and See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade.—Murzuk, the present capital, which is in telegraphic communication with the See also:

• TOWN

town of Tripoli, lies in the western corner of the Hofra depression, in 25° 55' N. and 14° 10' E . It was founded about 1310, about which See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the kasbah or citadel was built . The See also:

• TURKS

Turks repaired it, as well as the town-See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall, which has, however, again fallen into a ruinous See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition . Murzuk, which had in 1906 some 3000 inhabitants, is cut in two by a wide See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

street, the dendal . The citadel and most of the houses are built of salt-saturated dried mud . Sokna, about midway between Tripoli and Murzuk, situated on a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain north of the Suda range, has a population of about 2500 . Garama-(See also:

• DERMA

Derma-el-Kedima), the capital under the Garamantes and the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, was in the Wadi-el-Gharbi . It was a flourishing town at the time of the Arab See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest but is now deserted . Among the ruins is a well-preserved See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

monument markikg the southern limit of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman dominions in this part of See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . The See also:

• MODERN

modern Jerma is a small See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place a little north of the site of Garama . Zuila, the capital under the Arabs, lies in a depression called the Sherguia east of Murzuk on the most See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan route to See also:

• BARCA (mod. Merj)

Barca and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt .

Of Traghen, the capital under the Nesur See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, which was on the same caravan route and between Zuila and Murzuk, little besides the ruined kasbah remains . Placed roughly midway between the countries of the central Sudan and Tripoli, Fezzan serves as a See also:

• DEPOT (from the Fr. depot, Lat. depositum, laid down; the French accent marks are usually dispensed with in English)

depot for caravans See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the Sahara; its See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce is unimportant . Its most important export is that of dates . Slave dealing, formerly the most lucrative occupation of the people, is moribund owing to the stoppage of slave raiding by the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European governments in their Sudan territories . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The country formed part of the territory of the Garamantes, described by See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus as a very powerful people . Attempts have been made to identify the Garamantes with the Berauna of the Arabs of the 7th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, and to the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the Garamantes See also:

• DUVEYRIER, HENRI (184o-1892)

Duveyrier assigns the remains of remarkable See also:

• HYDRAULIC

hydraulic See also:

• WORKS

works, and certain tombs and See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock sculptures—indications, it is held, of a Negro See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient date which existed in the northern Sahara . The Garamantes, whether of Libyan or Negro origin, had certainly a considerable degree of civilization when in the See also:

• YEAR

year 19 l.c. they were conquered by the proconsul L . See also:

• CORNELIUS
• CORNELIUS, CARL AUGUST PETER (1824-1874)
• CORNELIUS, PETER VON (1784–1867)

Cornelius See also:

• BALBUS

Balbus See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor and their country added to the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . By the Romans it was called Phazania, whence the present name Fezzan . After the Vandal invasion Phazania appears to have regained See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and to have been ruled by a Berauna dynasty . At this time the people were Christians, but in 666 the Arabs conquered the country and all traces of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity seem speedily to have disappeared . Subject at first to the caliphs,.an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent Arab dynasty, that of the Beni Khattab, obtained See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power early in the loth century .

In the 13th century the country came under the rule of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Kanem (Bornu), but soon afterwards the Nesur, said to have been a native or Berauna dynasty, were in power . More probably the Nesur were hereditary See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors originally appointed by the rulers of Kanem . In the 14th century the Nesur were conquered and dethroned by an Arab tribe, that of Khorman, who reduced the people of Fezzan to a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery, a position from which they were rescued about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 16th century by a sherif of See also:

• MOROCCO

Morocco, Montasir-b.-Mahommed, who founded the dynasty of Beni Mahommed . This dynasty, which came into frequent conflict with the Turks, who had about the same time that Montasir secured Fezzan established themselves in Tripoli, gradually extended its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders as far as Sokna in the north . It was the Beni Mahommed who See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose Murzuk as their capital . They became intermittently tributary to the See also:

• PASHA

pasha of Tripoli, but within Fezzan the power of the sultans was See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute . They maintained a bodyguard of mamelukes, mostly Europeans—Greeks, Genoese, or their immediate descendants . The See also:

• ANNUAL

annual See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute was paid to the pasha either in See also:

• MONEY

money or in gold, See also:

• SENNA (Arab. sand)

senna or slaves . The last of the Beni Mahommed sultans was killed in the vicinity of Traghen in 1811 by El-Mukkeni, one of the lieutenants of Yusef Pasha, the last See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign but one of the independent Karamanli dynasty of Tripoli . El-Mukkeni now made himself See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan of Fezzan, and became notorious by his slaving expeditions into the central Sudan, in which he advanced as far as See also:

• BAGIRMI

Bagirmi . In 1831, Abd-el-Jelil, a chief of the Walid-Sliman Arabs, usurped the sovereign authority . After a troublous reign of ten years he was slain in See also:

• BATTLE

battle by a See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish force under Bakir See also:

• BEY (a modern Turk. word, the older form being beg, cf. Pers. baig)

Bey, and Fezzan was added to the Turkish empire .

Towards the end of the 19th century the Turks, alarmed at the increase of See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence in the neighbouring countries, reinforced their See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison in Fezzan . The kaimakamlik is said to yield an annual See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue of f6000 only to the Tripolitan See also:

• TREASURY

treasury . See also:

• AUTH0RITIES

AUTH0RITIEs.—The most notable of the European travellers who See also:

• NAVE

nave visited Fezzan, and to whose works reference should be made for more detailed See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information regarding it, are, taking them in the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of date, as follows: F . See also:

• HORNEMANN, FREDERICK (fl. 1796–1800)

Hornemann, 1798; G . F . See also:

• LYON, MARY MASON (1797-1849)
• LYON, NATHANIEL (1818-1861)

Lyon, 1819; D . See also:

• DENHAM, DIXON (1786–1828.)
• DENHAM, SIR JOHN (1615—1669)

Denham, H . See also:

• CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827)

Clapperton and W . Oudney, 1822; J . See also:

• RICHARDSON, GEORGE
• RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886)
• RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761)
• RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865)

Richardson, 1845; H . See also:

• BARTH
• BARTH, HEINRICH (1821–1865)
• BARTH, KASPAR VON (1587-1658)

Barth, 1850–1855; E . See also:

• VOGEL, EDUARD (1829-1856)
• VOGEL, SIR JULIUS (1835-1899)

Vogel, 1854; H .

Duveyrier, 1859–1861; M. von Beurmann, 1862; G . Rohlfs, 1865; G . See also:

• NACHTIGAL, GUSTAV (1834-1885)

Nachtigal, 1869; P . L . See also:

• MONTEIL, AMANS ALEXIS (1769–1850)

Monteil, 1892; H . See also:

• VISCHER
• VISCHER, FRIEDRICH THEODOR (1807-1887)

Vischer, 1906 . Nachtigal's Sahara and Sudan, vol. i . (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1879), gathers up much of the information in earlier works, and a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the Beni Mahommed sovereigns is given in A . M . H . J . Stokvis, See also:

• MANUEL, EUGENE (1823–1901)
• MANUEL, JACQUES ANTOINE (1775-1827)
• MANUEL, LOUIS PIERRE (1751-1793)

Manuel d'histoire, vol. i .

(See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1888), p . 471 . See also:

• MISS

Miss Tinne (q.v.), who travelled with Nachtigal as far as Murzuk, was shortly afterwards murdered at the Sharaba See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells on the road to Ghat .