See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)  , a See also:

• GRAND

grand-duchy governed subject to its own constitution by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia as grand-See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland . It is situated between the gulfs of See also:

• BOTHNIA, GULF OF

Bothnia and Finland, and includes, moreover, a large territory in See also:

• LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND

Lapland . It touches at its See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south-eastern extremity the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, includes the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HALF

half of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• LADOGA (formerly NEvo)

Ladoga, and is separated from the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian governments of Arkhangelsk and See also:

• OLONETS

Olonets by a sinuous See also:

• LINE

line which follows, roughly speaking, the See also:

• WATER

water-parting between the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers flowing into the Baltic See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea and the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Sea . In the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the Gulf of Bothnia it is separated from See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway by a broken line which takes the course of the valley of the Tornea See also:

• RIVER

river up to its See also:

• SOURCES

sources, thus falling only 21 M. See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of reaching the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of See also:

• NORWEGIAN

Norwegian Lynven-See also:

• FJORD, or FIORD

fjord; then it runs south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east and north-east down the See also:

• TANA

Tana and Pasis-joki, but does not reach the Artic Ocean, and 13 M. from the Varanger-fjord it turns southwards . Finland includes in the south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west the Aland See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago—its frontier approaching within 8 m. from the See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast—as well as the islands of the Gulf of Finland, Hogland, Tytars, &c . Its utmost limits are: 590 48'—70° 6' N., and 19° 2'—32° 50' E . The See also:

• AREA

area of Finland, in square See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles, is as follows (See also:

• ALIAS (Lat. for " at another time ")

Alias de Finlande, 1899): See also:

• OROGRAPHY (Gr. opos, mountain, ypadeuv, to write)

Orography.—A line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the head of the Gulf of Bothnia to the eastern coast of Lake Ladoga divides Finland into two distinct parts, the lake region and the nearly uninhabited hilly tracts belonging to the Kjolen mountains, to the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of the See also:

• KOLA

Kola See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, and to the slopes of the plateau which separates Finland proper from the White Sea . At the head-See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Tornea, Finland penetrates as a narrow See also:

• STRIP

strip into the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of Kjolen (the See also:

• KEEL

Keel), where the Haldefjall (Lappish, Halditjokko) reaches 4115 ft. above the sea, and is surrounded by other Dellis, or See also:

• HAT

Hat-topped summits, of from 3300 to 3750 ft. of See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude . Extensive plateaus (1500-1750 ft.), into which Lake Enare, or Inari, and the valleys of its tributaries are deeply sunk, and which take the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain region in the Saariselka (highest See also:

• SUMMIT

summit, 2360 ft.), occupy the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of Lapland . Along the eastern border the dreary plateaus of Olonets reach on Finnish territory altitudes of from 700 to moo ft . Quite different is the character of the pentagonal space comprised between the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Lake Ladoga, and the above-mentioned line traced through the lakes Ule$ and Piellis . The meridional ridges which formerly used to be traced here along the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main water-partings do not exist in reality, and the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country appears on the hypsometrical See also:

• MAP
• MAP (or MAPES), WALTER (d. c. 1208/9)

map in the See also:

• ATLAS

Atlas de Finlande as a plateau of 350 ft. of See also:

• AVERAGE

average altitude, covered with countless lakes, lying at altitudes of from 250 to 300 ft .

The three main lake-basins of See also:

• NASI, JOSEPH (16th century)

Nasi-jarvi, Pajane and Saima are separated by See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat hills only; but one See also:

• SEES

sees distinctly appearing on the map a line of flat elevations See also:

• RUNNING

running south-west to north-east along the north-west border of the lake regions from Lauhanvuori to Kajana, and reaching from 65o to 825 ft. of altitude . A See also:

• REGULAR

regular See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle slope leads from these hills to the Gulf of Bothnia (Osterbotten), forming vast See also:

• PRAIRIE (adopted from the Fr. prairie, a meadow-tract. Late Lat. prataria, Lat. pratum, meadow)

prairie tracts in its See also:

• LOWER

lower parts . A notable feature of Finland are the (See also:

• ISAR (identical with Isere, in Celtic " the rapid ")

Isar or narrow ridges of morainic deposits, more or less reassorted on their surfaces . Some of them are See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of the See also:

• LONGITUDINAL

longitudinal moraines of the See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-See also:

• SHEET

sheet, and they run north-west to south-east, parallel to the striation of the rocks and to the countless parallel troughs excavated by the ice in the hard rocks in the same direction; while the Lojo as, which runs from Hangoudd to Vesi-jarvi, and is continued farther east under the name of Salpausellia, parallel to the See also:

• SHORE

shore of the Gulf of Finland, are remainders of the frontal moraines, formed at a See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period when the ice-sheet remained for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time stationary during its See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat . As a See also:

• RULE

rule these See also:

• FOREST

forest-clothed (Isar rise from 30 to 6o and occasionally 120 ft. above the level of the surrounding country, largely adding to the already See also:

• GREAT

great picturesqueness of the lake region; See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways are traced in preference along them . Lakes and Rivers.—A See also:

• LABYRINTH (Gr. Xa(3vpcvOos, Lat. labyrinthus)

labyrinth of lakes, covering ii°o of the aggregate territory, and connected by short and rapid streams (ijdrdrn), covers the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of South Finland, offering great facilitiesfor See also:

• INTERNAL

internal See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation, while the connecting streams See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply an enormous amount of See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief lakes are: Lake Ladoga, of which the northern half belongs to Finland; Saima (three and a half times larger than Lake Leman), whose outlet, the Vuoksen, flows into Lake Ladoga, forming the mighty Imatra rapids, while the lake itself is connected by means of a sluiced See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal with the Gulf of Finland; the basins of Pyha-selka, Ori-vesi and Piellis-jarvi; Pajane, surrounded by hundreds of smaller lakes, and the waters of which are discharged into the lower gulf through the Kymmene river ; Nasi-jarvi and Pyha-jarvi, whose outflow is the Kumo-See also:

• ELF
• ELF (O. Eng. aelf; cf. Ger. Alp, nightmare)

elf, flowing into the Gulf of Bothnia; Ulea-trask, discharged by the Ulea into the same gulf ; and Enare, belonging to the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

Arctic Ocean . Two large rivers, Kemi and Tornea, enter the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, while the Ulea is now navigable throughout, owing to improvements in its channel . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian, See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous deposits are found on the coasts of the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga, and also along the coasts of the Arctic Ocean (probably Devonian), and in the Kjolen . Eruptive rocks of Palaeozoic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age are met with in the Kola peninsula (See also:

• NEPHELINE

nepheline-syenites) and at Kuusamo (See also:

• SYENITE

syenite) . The remainder of Finland is built up of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest known crystalline rocks belonging to the Archaeozoic or Algonkian period . The most See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient of these seem to be the granites of East Finland .

The denudation and destruction of the granites gave rise to the Ladoga See also:

• SCHISTS (Gr. vxq'ecv, to split)

schists and various deposits of the same period, which were subsequently strongly folded . Then the country came once more under the sea, and the debris of the previous formations, mixed with fragments from the volcanoes then situated in West Finland, formed the so-called Bothnian See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . New masses of granites protruded next from underneath, and the Bothnian deposits underwent foldings in their turn, while denudation was again at See also:

• WORK

work on a grand See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . A new series of Jalulian deposits was formed and a new See also:

• SYSTEM

system of foldings followed; but these were the last in this See also:

• PART

part of the globe . The Jotnian series, which were formed next, remain still undisturbed . It is to this series that the well-known Rapakivi See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite of Aland, Nystad and See also:

• VIBORG
• VIBORG (Finnish Viipuri)

Viborg belongs . No marine deposits younger than those just mentioned—all belonging to a pre-Cambrian See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch—are found in the central portion of Finland; and the greater part of the country has probably been dry See also:

• LAND

land since Palaeozoic times . The whole of Finland is covered with Glacial and See also:

• POST

post-Glacial deposits . The former of these, representing the bottom-See also:

• MORAINE

moraine of the ice-sheet, are covered with Glacial and post-Glacial See also:

• CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900)

clays (partly of lacustrine and partly of marine origin) only in the peripheral coast-region—or in See also:

• SEPARATE

separate areas in the interior depressions . Some Finnish geologists—Sederholm for one—consider it probable that during the Glacial period an Arctic sea (Yoldia sea) covered allrsouthern Finland and also Scania (Skhne) in Sweden, thus connecting the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic Ocean with the Baltic and the White Sea by a broad channel; but no fossils from that sea have been found anywhere in Finland . Conclusive proofs, however, of a later submergence under a post-Glacial Littorina sea (containing shells now living in the Baltic) are found up to 150 ft. along the Gulf of Finland, and up to 26o, or perhaps 330 ft., in Osterbotten . Traces of a large inner post-Glacial lake, similar to Lake See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz of North See also:

• AMERICA

America, have been discovered .

The country is still continuing to rise, but at an unequal See also:

• RATE

rate; of nearly 3.3 ft. in a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century in the Gulf of Bothnia (Kvarken), from 1.4 to 2 ft. in the south, and nearly zero ,in the Baltic provinces . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—Owing to the prevalence of moist west and south-west winds the climate of Finland is less severe than it is farther east in corresponding latitudes . The country lies thus between the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual isotherms of 41° and 28° Fahr., which run in a W.N.W.-E.S.E. direction . In See also:

• JANUARY

January the average monthly temperature varies from 9° Fahr. about Lake Enare to 30° along the south coast; while in See also:

• JULY

July the difference between the monthly averages is only eight degrees, being 53° in the north and 61° in the south-east . Everywhere, and especially in the interior, the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter lasts very See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, and See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early frosts (See also:

• JUNE

June 12-14 in 1892) often destroy the crops . The amount of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain and See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow is from 25a in. along the south coast to 13.8 in. in the interior of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Finland . See also:

• FLORA

Flora, Forests, See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—The flora of Finland has been most minutely explored, especially in the south, and the Finnish botanists were enabled to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the country into twenty-eight different provinces, giving the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of phanerogam See also:

• SPECIES

species for each See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province . These numbers vary from 318 to 400 species in Lapland, from 508 to 651 in Karelia, and attain 752 species for Finland proper; while the See also:

• TOTAL

total for all Finland attains 1132 species . Alpine See also:

• PLANTS

plants are not met with in Finland proper, but are represented by from 32 to 64 species in the Kola peninsula . The chief forest trees of Finland are the Scotch See also:

• FIR

fir (Pinus sylvestris, L.), the fir (Picea excelsa, See also:

• LINK

Link.); two species of See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch (B. verrucosa, Ehrh., and B. odorata, Bechst.), as well as the birch-See also:

• BUSH

bush (B. nana); two species of Alnus (glutinosa and incana); the See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak (Q. pedunculata, Ehrh.), which grows only on the south coast; the See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar (Populus tremula); and the Siberian See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch, introduced in culture in the 18th century . Over 6,00o,000 trees are cut every See also:

• YEAR

year to he floated to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty large saw-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, and IO Government . See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent .

Islands Islands Lakes . Total . in Lakes. in Seas . Nyland 4,062 24 210 286 4,582 See also:

• ABO (Finnish Turku)

Abo-See also:

• BJORNEBORG (Finnish, Pori)

Bjorneborg 7.594 8 1331 400 9,333 See also:

• TAVASTEHUS

Tavastehus 6,837 97 .. 1,400 8,334 Viborg 11,63o 362 130 4,502 16,624 St See also:

• MICHEL
• MICHEL, CLAUDE
• MICHEL, FRANCISQUE XAVIER (1809-1887)

Michel . 5,652 ioi8 .. 2,149 8,819 See also:

• KUOPIO

Kuopio 13,160 643 .. 2,696 16,499 See also:

• VASA, or NIKOLAISTAD

Vasa . 14,527 62 203 1,313 16,105 See also:

• ULEABORG (Finnish, Oulu)

Uleaborg . 60,348 171 94 3,344 63,957 Total 123,810 2385 1968 16,090 144,253 about I,000,000 to be transformed into See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper pulp . The total export of See also:

• TIMBER

timber was valued in 1897 at 82,16o,Ooo marks . It is estimated, however, that the domestic use of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood (especially for See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel) represents nearly five times as many cubic feet as the wood used for export in different shapes .

The total area under forests is estimated at 63,050,000 acres, of which 34,662,000 acres belong to the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . The fauna has been explored in great detail both as regards the vertebrates and the invertebrates, and specialists will find the necessary See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

bibliographical indications in Travaux geographiques en Finlande, published for the See also:

• LONDON

London See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

Geographical See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress of 1895 . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.---The population of Finland, which was 4.29,912 in 1751, 832,659 in 1800, 1,636,915 in 1850, and 2,520,437 in 1895, was 2,712,562 in 1904, of whom 1,370,480 were See also:

• WOMEN

women and 1,342,082 men . Of these only 341,602 lived in towns, the remainder in the country districts . The See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of population in various provinces was as follows: 1904 . Population . See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

Density per sq. kilometre . See also:

• LOBO, FRANCISCO RODRIGUES (?1575–?1627); Portuguese bucolic writer, a lineal descendant in the family of letters of Bernardim Ribeiro and Christovam Falcao. All we know of his life is that he was born of rich and noble parents at Leiria, and lived at ease
• LOBO, JERONIMO (1593-1678)

lobo-Bjbrneborg . 447,098 20.3 Kuopio . . 313,951 8.9 Nyland 297,813 29'3 St Michel 189,360 11.1 Tavastehus . 301,272 17.7 Uleaborg . 28o,899 1.9 Viborg 421,610 14.6 Vasa 460,460 12.5 Total 2,712,562 8.6 The number. of births in 1904 was 90,253 and the deaths 50,227, showing an excess of births over deaths of 40,026 .

See also:

• EMIGRATION (from Lat. emigrare; e, ex, out of, and migrare, to depart)

Emigration was estimated at about three thousand every year before 1898, but it largely increased then owing to Russian encroachments on Finnish See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy . In 1899 the emigrants numbered 12,357; 10,642 in 1900; 12,659 in 1901; and 10,952 in 1904 . The bulk of the population are Finns (2,352,990 in 1904) and Swedes (349,733) . Of Russians there were only 5939, chiefly in the provinces of Viborg and Nyland . Both Finns and Swedes belong to the Lutheran faith, there being only 46,466 members of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek Orthodox See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church and 755 See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholics . The leading cities of Finland are : See also:

• HELSINGFORS (Finnish Helsinki)

Helsingfors, See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the grand-duchy and of the province (lan) of Nyland, See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal seaport (111,654 inhabitants); lobo, capital of the Abo-Bjorneborg province and ancient capital of Finland (42,639) ; Tammerfors, the leading manufacturing See also:

• TOWN

town of the grand-duchy (40,261); Viborg, chief town of province of same name, important seaport (34,672) ; Uleaborg, capital of province (17,737) ; Vasa, or Nikolaistad, capital of Vasa lan (18,028); Bjorneborg (16,053); Kuopio, capital of province (13,519) ; and Tavastehus, capital of province of the same name (5545) . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture gives occupation to the large See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the population, but of See also:

• LATE

late the increase of manufactures has been marked . See also:

• DAIRY

Dairy-farming is also on the increase, and the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign exports of See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose from 1930 cwt. in 1900 to 3130 cwt. in 1905 . See also:

• MEASURES

Measures have been taken since 1892 for the improvement of agriculture, and the state keeps twenty-six agronomists and instructors for that purpose . There are two high See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, one experimental station, twenty-two See also:

• MIDDLE

middle schools and See also:

• FORTY

forty-eight lower schools of agriculture, besides ten horticultural schools . Agricultural See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies exist in each province . Fishing is an important See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item of income .

The value of exports of See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, &c., was £140,000 in 1904, but fish was also imported to the value of £61,300 . The manufacturing industries (wood-products, metallurgy, machinery, textiles, paper and See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather) are of See also:

• MODERN

modern development, but the aggregate See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production approaches one and a half millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling in value . Some See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold is obtained in Lapland on the Ivalajoki, but the output, which amounted in 1871 to 56,692 grammes, had fallen in 1904 to 1951 grammes . There is also a small output of See also:

• SILVER

silver, See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron . The last is obtained partly from mines, but chiefly from the lakes . In 1904 22,050 tons of See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast iron were obtained . The textile industries are making rapid progress, and their produce, notwithstanding the high duties, is exported to Russia . The fabrication of paper out of wood is also rapidly growing . As to the timber See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade, there are upwards of 500 saw-mills, employing 21,000 men, and with an output valued at over £3,000,000 annually . Communications.---The roads, attaining an aggregate length of 27,500 in., are kept as a rule in very See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . The first railway was opened in 1862, and the next, from Helsingfors to St Petersburg, in 187o (cost only £4520 per mile) . Railways of a lighter type began to be built since 1877, and now Finland has about 21o0 m. of railway, mostly belonging to the state .

The See also:

• GROSS

gross income from the state railways is 26,607,622, and the See also:

• NET

net income 4,684,856 marks . Finland has an extensive and well-kept system of canals, of which the sluiced canal connecting Lake Saima with the Gulf of Finland is the chief one . It permits See also:

• SHIPS

ships navigating the Baltic to penetrate 270 M. inland, and is passed every year by from 4980 to 5200 Vessels . Considerable See also:

• WORKS

works have also been made to connect the differentlakes and lake-basins for inland navigation, a sum of £i,000,000 having been spent for that purpose . The telegraphs chiefly belong to Russia . Telephones have an enormous See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension both in the towns and between the different towns of southern Finland; the cost of the yearly subscription varies from 4o to 6o marks,' and is only Io marks in the smaller towns . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—The foreign trade of Finland increases steadily, and reached in 1904 the fallowing values: From or to From or to Totals . Russia. other Countries . Imports • £4,036,000 £6,488,000 £10,524,000 Exports 2,332,000 6,292,000 8,624,000 The chief trade of Finland is with Russia, and next with Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and Sweden . The main imports are: cereals and See also:

• FLOUR

flour (to an annual value exceeding £31000,000), metals, machinery, textile materials and textile products . The chief articles of export are; timber and wood articles (£5,250,000), paper and paper pulp, some tissues, metallic goods, leather, &c . The chief ports are Helsingfors, lobo, Viborg, See also:

• HANGO

Hango and Vasa, See also:

• EDUCATION

Education.—Great strides have been made since 1866, when a new education See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law was passed .

Rudimentary teaching in See also:

• READING

reading, occasionally See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing, and the first principles of Lutheran faith are given in the maternal See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, or in " maternal schools," or by See also:

• AMBULATORY (Med. Lat. ainbulatorium, a place for walking, from ambulare, to walk)

ambulatory schools under the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, who make the necessary examination in the houses of every See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish . All education above that level is in the hands of the educational See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department and school boards elected in each parish, each rural parish being See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound (since 1898) to be divided into a proper number of school districts and to have a school in each of them, the state contributing to these ex penses 80o marks a year for each male and 600 marks for each See also:

• FEMALE

female teacher, or 25 % of the total cost in See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban communes . Secondary education, formerly instituted on two separate lines, classical and scientific, has been reformed so as to give more prominence to scientific education, even in the classical (linguistic) lyceums or gymnasia . For higher education there is the university of Helsingfors (formerly the Abo See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy), which in 1906 had 1921 students (328 women) and 141 professors and docents . Besides the Helsingfors See also:

• POLYTECHNIC (Gr. aroWus, many, and rEXvn, an art)

polytechnic there are a number of higher and lower technical, commercial and navigation schools . Finland has several scientific societies enjoying a See also:

• WORLD

world-wide reputation, as the Finnish Scientific Society, the Society for the Flora and Fauna of Finland, several medical societies, two societies of literature, the Finno-Ugrian Society, the See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical and Archaeological Societies, one juridical, one technical and two geographical societies . All of these, as also the Finnish See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

Geological Survey, the Forestry See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

Administration, &c., issue publications well known to the scientific world . The numerous See also:

• LOCAL

local branches of the See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

Friends of the Folk-School and the Society for Popular Education display great activity, the former by aiding the smaller communes in establishing schools, and the latter in See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing popular works, starting their own schools as well as See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries (in nearly every See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune), and organizing lectures for the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . The university students take a lively part in this work . Government and Administration.—From the time of its See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union with Russia at the See also:

• DIET

Diet of Borg& in 1809 till the events of 1899 (see See also:

• HISTORY

History) Finland was practically a separate state, the emperor of Russia as grand-duke governing by means of a nominated See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate and a diet elected on a very narrow See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise, and See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting at distant and irregular intervals . This diet was on the old Swedish See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model, consisting of representatives of the four estates—See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants—sitting and voting in separate " Houses." The government of the country was practically carried on by the senate, which communicated with St Petersburg through a Finnish secretary attached to the Russian government . See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War and foreign affairs were entirely in the hands of Russia, and a Russian See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor had his See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in Helsingfors .

The senate also controlled the administration of the law . The constitutional conflict of 1899–1905 brought about something like a revolution in Finland . For some years the country was subject to a practically arbitrary See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of government, but the disasters of the Russo-See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese War and the growing anarchy in Russia resulted in 1905 in a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete and peaceful victory for the defenders of the Finnish constitution . As a Finnish writer puts it: just as the calamities which had befallen Finland came from Russia, so was her deliverance to came from Russia," The status quo ante was restored, the diet met in extraordinary session, and proceeded to the entire re-casting of the Finnish government . Freedom of the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press was voted, and the diet next proceeded to reform its own constitution . i The Finnish See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, markka, of too pcnni, equals about Sid . Far-reaching changes were voted . The new diet, instead of being composed of four estates sitting separately, consists of a single chamber of 200 members elected directly by universal See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage, women being eligible . By the new constitution the grand-duchy was to be divided into not less than twelve and not more than eighteen constituencies, electing members in proportion to population . A See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of " proportional See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation," the votes being counted in accordance with the system invented by G . M. d'Hondt, a Belgian, was also adopted . The executive was to consist of a See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister-secretary of state and of the membert of the senate, who were entitled to attend and address the diet and who might be the subject of interpellations .

The members of the senate were made responsible to the diet as well as to the emperor-grand-duke for their acts . The diet has power to consider and decide upon measures proposed by the government . After a measure has been approved by the diet it is the See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty of the senate to See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report upon it to the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign . But the senate is not obliged to accept the decision of themajority of the diet, nor, apparently, is the sovereign bound to accept the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of the senate.- The first elections, See also:

• APRIL

April 1907, resulted in the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election to the diet of about 40 % representatives of the Social Democratic party, and nineteen women members . The See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget of Finland in 1905 was L4,273,970 of " See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary " See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue . The "ordinary " See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure was £3,595,300 . The public See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt amounted at the end of 1905 to £5,611,170 . History.—It was probably at the end of the 7th or the beginning, of the 8th century that the Finns took See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of what is now Finland, though it was only when See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity was introduced, about 1157, that they were brought into contact with civilized See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . They probably found the Lapps in possession of the country . The early Finlanders do not seem to have had any governmental organization, but to have lived in separate communities and villages See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of each other . Their See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology consisted in the deification of the forces of nature, as " Ukko," the See also:

• GOD

god of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, " Tapio," god of the forests, " Ahti," the god of water, &c . These early Finlanders seem to have been both brave and troublesome to their neighbours, and their repeated attacks on the coast of Sweden See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew the See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of that country .

See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• ERIC

Eric IX . (St Eric), accompanied by the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• UPSALA, or UPPSALA

Upsala, See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry (an Englishman, it is said), and at the head of a considerable See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, invaded the country in 1157, when the people were conquered and baptized . King Eric See also:

• LEFT

left Bishop Henry with his priests and some soldiers behind to confirm the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest and complete the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion . After a time he was killed, canonized, and as St Henry became the See also:

• PATRON

patron See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

saint of Finland . As Sweden had to attend to her own affairs, Finland was gradually reverting to See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and paganism, when in 1209 another bishop and missionary, See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas (also an Englishman), arrived and recommenced the work of St Henry . Bishop Thomas nearly succeeded in detaching Finland from Sweden, and forming it into a province subject only to the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope . The famous See also:

• BIRGER (?-1266)

Birger Jarl undertook a crusade in Finland in 1249, compelling the Tavastians, one of the sub-divisions of the Finlanders proper, to accept Christianity, and See also:

• BUILDING

building a See also:

• CASTLE
• CASTLE (Lat. castellum, a fort, diminutive of castra, a camp; Fr. chateau and chdtel)

castle at Tavestehus . It was Terkel Knutson who conquered and connected the Karelian Finlanders in 1293, and built the strong castle of Viborg . Almost continuous See also:

• WARS

wars between Russia and Sweden were the result of the conquest of Finland by the latter . In 1323 it was settled that the river Rajajoki should be the boundary between Russia and the Swedish province . After the final conquest of the country by the Swedes, they spread among the Finlanders their See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, gave them See also:

• LAWS

laws, accorded them the same See also:

• CIVIL

civil rights as belonged to themselves, and introduced agriculture and other beneficial arts . The Reformed See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion was introduced into Finland by Gustavus Vasa about 1528, and King See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John III. raised the country to the dignity of a grand-duchy .

It continued to suffer, sometimes deplorably, in most of the wars waged by Sweden, especially with Russia and Denmark . His predecessor having created an order of nobility,--See also:

• COUNTS

counts, barons and nobles, Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

Adolphus in the beginning,of the t 7th century established the diet of Finland, composed of the four orders of . X . 13385 the nobility, clergy, burghers and peasants . Gustavus and his successor did much for Finland by See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding schools and gymnasia, building churches, encouraging learning and introducing See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing . 'During the reign of 'See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles XI, (1692–1696) the country suffered terribly from See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine and pestilence; in the See also:

• DIOCESE (formed on Fr. diocese, in place of the Eng. form diocess—current until the 19th century—from Lat. dioecesis, med. Lat. variant diocesis, from Gr. Swucio•tc, " house-keeping," " administration," &miceas, " to keep house," " to govern ")

diocese of Abo alone 60,000 persons died in less than nine months . Finland+ has been visited at different periods since by these scourges; so late as 1848 whole villages were starved during a -dreadful famine . See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great cast an envious See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye on Finland and tried to wrest it from Sweden; in 1710 he managed to obtain possession of the towns of Kexholm and Villmanstrand; and by 1716 all the country was in his power . Meantime the sufferings of the people had been great; thousands perished in the wars of Charles XII . By the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of Nystad in 1721 the province of Viborg, the eastern See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of Finland, was finally ceded to Russia . But the country had been laid very low by war, pestilence and famine, though it recovered itself with wonderful rapidity . In 1741 the Swedes made an effort to recover the ceded province, but through wretched management suffered disaster, and were compelled to capitulate' in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1742, ceding by the peace of Abo, next year, the towns of Villmanstrand and Fredrikshamn .

Nothing remarkable seems to have occurred till 1788, under Gustavus III., who began to reign in 1771, and who confirmed to Finland those "fundamental laws " which they have succeeded in maintaining against kings and tsars for over two centuries . The country was divided into six governments, a second See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice was founded at Vasa, many new towns were built, commerce flourished, and See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and See also:

• ART

art were encouraged . Latin disappeared as the See also:

• ACADEMIC

academic See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, and Swedish was adopted . In 1788 war again See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out between Sweden and Russia, and was carried on for two years without much See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory or gain to either party; the main aim of Gustavus being to recover the lost Finnish province . In 1808, under Gustavus IV., peace was again broken between the two countries, and the war ended by the cession in 18o9 of the whole of Finland and the Aland Islands to Russia . Finland, however, did not enter Russia as a conquered province, but, thanks to the bravery of her people after they had been abandoned by an incompetent monarch and treacherous generals, and not less to the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and generosity of the emperor See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander I. of Russia, she maintained her free constitution and fundamental laws, and became a semi-independent grand-duchy with the emperor as grand-duke . The estates were summoned to a free diet at See also:

• BORGA (Finnish Porvoo)

Borga, and accepted Alexander as grand-duke of Finland, he on his part solemnly recognizing the Finnish constitution and undertaking to preserve the religion, laws and liberties of the country . A senate was created and a governor-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general named . The province of Viborg was reunited to Finland in 1811, and Abo remained the capital of the country till 1821, when the civil and military authorities were removed to Helsingfors, and the university in 1827 . The diet, which had not met for 56 years, was convoked by Alexander II. at Helsingfors in 1863 . Under Alexander II . Finland was on the whole prosperous and progressive, and his statue in the great square in front of the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral and the senate house in Helsingfors testifies to the regard in which his memory is cherished by his Finnish subjects .

Unfortunately his successor soon See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the reactionary party which had begun to assert itself in Russia even before the assassination of Alexander II . One of Alexander See also:

• ILL

Ill.'s first acts was to confirm " the constitution which was granted to the grand-duchy of Finland by His See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty the emperor Alexander Pavlovich of most glorious memory, and See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed with the consent of the estates of Finland by our dearly beloved See also:

• FATHER

father of blessed memory the emperor Alexander Nicolaievich." But the Slavophil See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, with its See also:

• MOTTO (an Italian word, from Late Lat. muttum, a low sound, a mutter or murmur, cf. mutere, to mutter; the Latin word also gives Fr. mot, word)

motto, " one law, one church, one See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue," acquired great influence in See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official circles, and its aim was, in See also:

• DEFIANCE

defiance of the pledges of successive tsars, to subject Finland to Orthodoxy and See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy . It is unnecessary to follow in detail the seven years' struggle between the Russian bureaucracy and the defenders of the Finnish constitution . Politics in Finland were complicated by the rivalry between the Swedish party, which II 386 had hitherto been dominant in Finland, and the Finnish " nationalist " party which, during the latter half of the 19th century, had been determinedly asserting itself linguistically and politically . With some exceptions, however, the whole country See also:

• UNITED

united in See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of its constitution; " Fennoman " and " Svecoman," recognizing that their See also:

• COMMON

common liberties were at stake, suspended their See also:

• FEUD

feud for a See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season . With the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas II . (see Russia) the constitutional conflict became acute, and the " See also:

• FEBRUARY

February manifesto " (February 15th, 1899) virtually abrogated the legislative power of the'Finnish diet . A new military law, practically amalgamating the Finnish with the Russian forces, followed in July 1901; Russian officials and the Russian language were forced on Finland wherever possible, and in April 1903 the Russian governor, General Bobrikov, was invested with practically dictatorial See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers . The country was flooded with spies, and a See also:

• SPECIAL

special Russian See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police force was created, the expenses being charged to the Finnish See also:

• TREASURY

treasury . The Russian system was now in full See also:

• SWING, DAVID (1830-1894)

swing; domiciliary visits, illegal arrests and banishments, and the suppression of See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers, were the order of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . To all this the people of Finland opposed a dogged and determined resistance, which culminated in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1905 in a " See also:

• NATIONAL

national strike." The strike was universal, all classes joining in the movement, and it spread to all the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial centres and even to the rural districts . The railway, steamship, See also:

• TELEPHONE (Gr. rjXs, far, and dxwvr7, voice)

telephone and postal services were practically suspended .

Helsingfors was without tramcars, cabs, See also:

• GAS

gas and See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity; no shops except See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision shops were open; public departments, schools and restaurants were dosed . After six days the unconstitutional government--already much shaken by events in Russia and See also:

• MANCHURIA

Manchuria—capitulated . In an imperial manifesto dated the 7th of November 1905 the demands of Finland were granted, and the status quo ante 1899 was restored . But the reform did not See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest here . The old Finnish constitution, although See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious to those whose only See also:

• PROTECTION

protection it was, was an antiquated and not very efficient See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument of government . Popular feeling had been excited by the See also:

• POLITICAL

political conflict, advanced tendencies had declared themselves, and when the new diet met it proceeded as explained above to remodel the constitution, on the basis of universal suffrage, with freedom of the press, speech, meeting and association . In 1908-ro See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction with Russia was again renewed . The Imperial government insisted that the decision in all Finnish questions affecting the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire must rest with them; and a renewed See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt was made to curtail the powers of the Finnish Diet . See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology.—The See also:

• TERM

term Finn has a wider application than Finland, being, with its See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective Finnic or Finno-Ugric (q.v.) or Ugro-Finnic, the collective name of the westernmost See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Ural-Altaic See also:

• FAMILY

family, dispersed throughout Finland, Lapland, the Baltic provinces (See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

Esthonia, See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

Livonia, Curland), parts of Russia proper (south of Lake See also:

• ONEGA

Onega), both See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of middle See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga, See also:

• PERM

Perm, See also:

• VOLOGDA

Vologda, West See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia (between the Ural Mountains and the Yenissei) and See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary . Originally nomads (hunters and fishers), all the Finnic people except the Lapps and Ostyaks have long yielded to the influence of civilization, and now everywhere See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead settled lives as herdsmen, agriculturists, traders, &c . Physically the Finns (here to be distinguished from the Swedish-speaking population, who retain their Scandinavian qualities) are a strong, See also:

• HARDY, ALEXANDRE (1569?-1631)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS DUFFUS (1804-1878)
• HARDY, SIR THOMAS MASTERMAN
• HARDY, THOMAS (1840- )

hardy See also:

• RACE

race, of low stature, with almost See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round head, low forehead, flat features, prominent cheek bones, eyes mostly See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey and oblique (inclining inwards), short and flat See also:

• NOSE (O.Eng. nosu, cf. Dutch neus, Swed. nos, snout; the Aix in Provence. Both at Aix and at Lyons he acquired great connexion with O.Eng. nasu is obscure, cf. Ger. Nase, Lat. pares, distinction by his labours during outbreaks of the plague. In nostrils,

nose, protruding mouth, thick lips, See also:

• NECK (O. Eng. hnecca; the word appears in many Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch ride, Ger. Nacken; in O. E. the common word was heals; cf. Ger. Hals)

neck very full and strong, so that the occiput seems flat and almost in a straight line with the nape; See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard weak and sparse, See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair no doubt originally See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black, but, owing to mixture with other races, now See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, red and even See also:

• FAIR

fair; complexion also somewhat brown . The Finns are morally upright, hospitable, faithful and submissive, with a keen sense of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal freedom and independence, but also somewhat stolid, revengeful and indolent .

Many of these See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and moral characteristics they have in common with the so-called " Mongolian "" race, to which they are no doubt ethnically, if not also linguistically, related.[LITERATURE Considerable researches have been accomplished since about 185o in the ethnology and See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

archaeology of Finland, on a scale which has no parallel in any other country . The study of the prehistoric population of Finland—See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

Neolithic (no See also:

• PALAEOLITHIC (Gr. iraXates, old, and )tWBor, stone)

Palaeolithic finds have yet been made)—of the Age of See also:

• BRONZE

Bronze and the Iron Age has been carried on with great zeal . At the same time the See also:

• FOLKLORE

folklore, Finnish and partly Swedish, has been worked out with wonderful completeness (see L'Quvre demi-seculaire de la Societe de Litterature finnoise et le mouvement national finnois, by Dr E . G . Palmen, Helsingfors, 1882, and K . Krohn's report to the London Folklore Congress of 1891) . The work that was begun by Porthan, Z . See also:

• TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [ZACHARIAS] (1818-1898)

Topelius, and especially E . See also:

• LONNROT, ELIAS (1802-1884)

Lonnrot (1802-1884), for See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting the popular See also:

• POETRY

poetry of the Finns, was continued by See also:

• CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER (1813-1853)

Castren (1813-1852), Europaeus (182o-1884), and V . Porkka (1854-1889), who extended their researches to the Finns settled in other parts of the Russian empire, and collected a considerable number of variants of the See also:

• KALEWALA, or KALEVALA

Kalewala and other popular poetry and songs . In order to study the different eastern kinsfolk of the Finns, Sjogren (1792-1855) extended his journeys to North Russia, and Castren to West and East Siberia (Nordische Reisen and Forschungen), and collected the materials which permitted himself and See also:

• SCHIEFNER, FRANZ ANTON (1817-1879)

Schiefner to publish grammatical works relative to the Finnish, Lappish, Zyrian, Tcheremiss, Ostiak, Samoyede, Tungus, Buryat, Karagas, See also:

• YENISEI

Yenisei-Ostiak and Kott See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages . Ahlqvist (1826-1889), and a See also:

• PHALANX (Gr. /&Xa'y, , of unknown origin)

phalanx of linguists, continued their work among the Vogules, the Mordves and the Obi-Ugrians .

And finally, the researches of Aspelin (See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

Foundations of Finno- Ugrian Archaeology, in Finnish, and Atlas of Antiquities) led the Finnish ethnologists to See also:

• DIRECT

direct more and more their attention to the basin of the Yenisei and the Upper Selenga . A series of expeditions (of Aspelin, Snellman and Heikel) were consequently directed to those regions, especially since the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery by Yadrintseff of the remarkable Orkhon See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions (see Turtles, p . 473), which finally enabled the Danish linguist, V . See also:

• THOMSEN, GRIMUR (182o-1896)
• THOMSEN, HANS PETER JORGEN JULIUS (1826–1909)

Thomsen, to decipher these inscriptions, and to discover that they belonged to the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish Iron Age . (See Inscriptions de l'Ienissei recueillies et publiees See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par la Societe Finl. d'Archeologie, 1889, and Inscriptions de l'Orkhon, 1892.) Finnish Literature . The earliest writer in the Finnish See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular was See also:

• MICHAEL
• MICHAEL (1596-1645)
• MICHAEL (Hebrew Sn,q, " Who is like God? ")

Michael See also:

• AGRICOLA (originally SCHNEIDER, then SCHNITTER), JOHANNES (1494-1566)
• AGRICOLA (the Latinized form of the name BAUER), GEORG (1490-1555)
• AGRICOLA, CHRISTOPH LUDWIG (1667-1719)
• AGRICOLA, GNAEUS JULIUS (A.D. 37-93)
• AGRICOLA, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1720-1774)
• AGRICOLA, MARTIN (c. 1500-1556)
• AGRICOLA, RODOLPHUS (properly ROELOF HUYSMANN) (1443-1485)

Agricola (1506-155Z), who published an A B C See also:

• BOOK

Book in 1544, and, as bishop of Abo, a number of religious and educational works . A version of the New Testament in Finnish was printed by Agricola in 1548, and some books of the Old Testament in 1552 . A complete Finnish See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

Bible was published at See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm in 1642 . The dominion of the Swedes was very unfavourable to the development of anything like a Finnish literature, the poets of Finland preferring to write in Swedish and so secure a wider See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience . It was not until, in 1835, the national epos of Finland, the Kalewala (q.v.), was introduced to readers by the exertions of See also:

• ELIAS, JOHN (1774-1841)

Elias Lonnrot (q.v.), that the Finnish language was used for See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . Lonnrot also collected and edited the works of the See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant-poets P . Korhonen (1775-1840) and Pentti Lyytinen, with an See also:

• ANTHOLOGY

anthology containing the improvisa- tions of eighteen other rustic bards .

During the last See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 19th century there was an ever-increasing literary activity in Finland, and it took the form less and less of the publication of Swedish works, but more and more that of examples of the aboriginal vernacular . At the See also:

• PRESENT

present time, in spite of the political troubles, books in almost every branch of See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research are found in the language, mainly See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations or adaptations . We meet with, during the present century, a considerable number of names of poets and dramatists, no doubt very See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor, as also painters, sculptors and musical composers . At the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International See also:

• EXHIBITION

Exhibition of 1878 several native Finnish painters and sculptors exhibited works which would do See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit to any country; and both in the See also:

• FINE

fine and applied arts Finland occupied a position thoroughly creditable . An important contribution to a history of Finnish literature is Krohn's Suomenkielinen runollisuns ruotsinvallan aikana (1862) . Finland is wonderfully See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• PERIODICALS

periodicals of all kinds, the publications of the Finnish Societies of Literature and of Sciences and other learned bodies being specially valuable . A great work in the revival of an See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the Finnish language was done by the Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura (the Finnish Literary Society), which from the year 1841 has published a valuable annual, Suomi . The Finnish Literary Society has also published a new edition of the works of the father of Finnish history, Henry See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel Porthan (died 1804) . A valuable handbook of Finnish history was published at Helsingfors in 1869-1873, by Yrjo Koskinen, and has been translated into both Swedish and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German . The author was a Swede, Georg Forsman, the above form being a Finnish See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation . Other works on Finnish history and some inportant works in Finnish See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography have also appeared . In language we have Lonnrot's great Finnish-Swedish See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary, published by the Finnish Literary Society .

Dr See also:

• OTTO

Otto Donner's See also:

• COMPARATIVE

Comparative Dictionary of the Finno-Ugric Languages (Helsingfors and See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig) is in German . In imaginative literature Finland has produced several important writers of the vernacular . See also:

• ALEXIS
• ALEXIS, WILLIBALD

Alexis Stenwall (" See also:

• KIWI

Kiwi ") (1834-1872), the son of a See also:

• VILLAGE

village tailor, was the best poet of his time; he wrote popular dramas and an historical See also:

• ROMANCE

romance, The Seven See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

Brothers (187o) . Among See also:

• RECENT

recent playwrights Mrs Minna Canth (1844-1897) has been the most successful . Other dramatists are E . F . Johnsson (1844-1895), P . Cajander (b . 1846), who translated See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare into Finnish, and Karl Bergbom (b . 1843) . Among lyric poets are J . H .

Erkko (b . 1849), Arwi Jannes (b . 1848) and Yrjo Weijola (b . 1875) . The earliest novelist of Finland, Pietari Paivarinta (b . 1827), was the son of a labourer; he is the author of a grimly realistic See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story, His See also:

• LIFE

Life . Many of the popular Finnish authors of our day are peasants . Kauppis Heikki was a wagoner; Alkio See also:

• FILANDER

Filander a See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer; Heikki Mavilainen a See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith; Juhana Kokko (Kyosti) a gamekeeper . The most gifted of the writers of Finland, however, is certainly Juhani Aho (b . 1861), the son of a country clergyman . His earliest writings were studies of modern life, very realistically treated . Aho then went to reside in France, where he made a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close study of the methods of the leading See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French novelists of the newer school .

About the year 1893 he began to publish short stories, some of which, such as Enris, The Fortress of See also:

• MATTHIAS
• MATTHIAS (1557-1619)

Matthias, The Old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

Man of Korpela and Finland's See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

Flag, are delicate works of art, while they reveal to a very interesting degree the See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper and ambitions of the contemporary Finnish population . It has been well said that in the writings of Juhani Aho can be traced all the idiosyncrasies which have formed the curious and pathetic history of Finland in recent years . A village See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, Juho Reijonen (b . 1857), in tales of somewhat artless form, has depicted the hardships which poverty too often entails upon the Finn in his country life . See also:

• TOLSTOY, LEO (1828-1910)
• TOLSTOY, PETR ANDREEVICH, COUNT (1645–1729)

Tolstoy has found an imitator in Arwid Jarnefelt (b . 1861) . Santeri Ingman (b . 1866) somewhat naively, but not without skill, has followed in the steps of Aho . It would be an See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error to exaggerate either the force or the originality of these early developments of a national Finnish literature, which, moreover, are mostly brief and unambitious in character . But they are eminently sincere, and they have the great merit of illustrating the local aspects of landscape and temperament and See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners . F . W .

Pipping, Forteckning ofver backer pd finska sprdket (Helsingfors, 1856-1857) ; E . Brausewetter, Finland See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Bilde seiner Dichtung and seiner Dichter (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1899) ; C . J . Pinson, Popular Poetry of the Finns (London, 190o) ; V . Vasenius, Ofversigt of Finlands Litteraturhistoria for skolor (Helsingfors, 1893) . For writers using the Swedish language, see SWEDEN: Literature . (E .