FINN MAC COOL (in Irish FIND MAC CUMAILL)  , the central figure of the later heroic See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle of See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, commonly called Ossianic or Fenian . In See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland Find usually goes by the name of Fingal . This appears to be due to a misunderstanding of the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title assumed by the See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord of the Isles, Rf Fionnghall, i.e. See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of the Norse . Find's See also:

• FATHER

father, Cumall mac Tr~nm~ir, was See also:

• UNCLE

uncle to See also:

• CONN
• CONN, LOUGH

Conn Cetchathach, High King of Ireland, who died in A.D . 157 . Cumall carried off Murna Munchaem„ the daughter of a Druid named Tadg mac Nuadat, and this led to the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Cnucha, in which Cumall was slain by Goll mac Morna (A.D.174) . Find was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born after his father's See also:

• DEATH

death and was at first called Demni . He is See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader of the fiann or feinne (See also:

• ENGLISH

English " Fenian "), a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia or See also:

• STANDING

standing See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army which was See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from all quarters of Ireland . His father had held the same See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office before him, but after • his death it passed to his enemy Gdll mac Morna, who retained it until Find came to See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate . Find usually resided at Almu (See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen) in Co . See also:

• KILDARE

Kildare, where he was surrounded by some of the contingents of the fiann, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest being scattered throughout Ireland to See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward off enemies, particularly those coming from over the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea . In times of invasion Find collected his forces, overcame the foe, and pursued him to Scotland or Lochlann (Scandinavia) as the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case might be .

When not engaged in See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war the fiann gave themselves up to the See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase or love-adventures . We are informed in See also:

• GREAT

great detail as to the conditions of See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to this privileged See also:

• BAND

band, which were at once singular and exacting . The foremost heroes in Find's See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train were his son See also:

• OSSIAN

Ossian, his See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson Oscar, Cailte mac Ronain, and Diarmait O'Duibne, whose elopement with Find's destined See also:

• BRIDE (a common Teutonic word, e.g..Goth. bruths, O. Eng. bryd, O. H. Ger. prs2t, Mod. Ger. Bract, Dut. bruid, possibly derived from the root bru-, cook, brew; from the med. latinized form bruta, in the sense of daughter-in-law, is derived the Fr. bru)

bride Grainne, daughter of the High-King Cormac mac Airt (A.D . 227-266), forms the subject of a celebrated See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story . These, like Find, were all of the Ua Baisgne See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch, with which was allied the Ua Morna, with whom they were generally at variance . The latter hailed from See also:

• CONNAUGHT
• CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, DUKE OF (1850– )

Connaught, See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief among them being Goll and Conan . By the See also:

• ANNALISTS (from Lat. annas, year; hence annales, sc. libri, annual records)

annalists Find is represented as having met with death by treachery either in 252 "or 283 . Under Coirpre Lifeochair, successor to Cormac mac Airt, the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the fiann became intolerable . The monarch accordingly took up arms against them and utterly crushed them at the battle of Gabra (A.D . 283) . Very few survived the defeat, but the story makes Ossian and Cailte live on until after the arrival of St See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick in 432 . It is incredible that such a band as the fiann should have existed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries .

A number of sagas older in date than the Ossianic stories have been preserved, which See also:

• DEAL

deal with events happening in the reigns of See also:

• ART

Art son of Conn (166-196), Lugaid mac See also:

• CON

Con (196-227), and Cormac mac Airt (227-266), but none of these in their See also:

• OLDEST

oldest shape contain any allusion whatsoever to Find and his warriors . In the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the Boroma, contained in the See also:

• BOOK

book of See also:

• LEINSTER

Leinster, Find is merely a Leinster chieftain who assists Bressal the king of Leinster against Coirpre Lifeochair . It can be shown that Find was originally a figure in Leinster-See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster tradition previous to the See also:

• VIKING

Viking See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, but we have no documentary See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence concerning him at this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . He seems primarily to have been regarded as a poet and magician . Later he appears to have been trans-formed into a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty chief, and Zimmer even tried to show that his See also:

• PERSONALITY (from Lat. persona, originally an actor's mask, from personare,1 to sound through)

personality was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in Leinster and Munster See also:

• LOCAL

local tradition out of stories clustering See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the figure of the Viking leader Ketill Hviti (Caittil Find), who was slain in 837 . By the See also:

• YEAR

year See also:

• I000

i000 Find was certainly connected in the minds of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people with the reign of Cormac mac Airt, but the See also:

• PROCESS

process is obscure . Recently See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• MACNEILL, HECTOR (1946-1818)

MacNeill has pointed out that in the oldest genealogies Find is always connected with the Ui Tairrsigh of Failge (Offaley, a See also:

• DISTRICT

district comprising the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• COUNTY (through Norm. Fr. comae, cf. O. Fr. cunte, conk', Mod. Fr. comae, from Lat. comitatus, cf. Ital. comitato, Prov. comtat; see COUNT)

county of Kildare and parts of King's and See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen's counties) . The Ui Tairrsigh were undoubtedly of Firbolg origin, and MacNeill would See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account in this manner for the slow See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of the stories by the conquering Milesians . Whilst the See also:

• ULSTER
• ULSTER, EARLS OF

Ulster epic was fashionable at See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court, the subject races clung to the Fenian cycle . For the last Boo years Find has been the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero of the Gaelic-speaking populations of Ireland, the Scottish See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

Highlands and the Isle of Man . See also See also:

• CELT
• CELT, or KELT

CELT (subsection Irish Literature) . The name Finno-Ugric is primarily linguistic and must not be pressed as indicating a community of See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical features and customs .

But making See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance for the See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language by some tribes, the Finno-Ugrians See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, with the striking exception of the Hungarians, a moderately homogeneous whole . They are nomads, but, unlike the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols and Manchus, have hardly ever shown themselves warlike and have no power of See also:

• POLITICAL

political organization . Those of them who have not come under See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence live under the simplest form of patriarchal See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, and states, See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings or even great chiefs are almost unknown among them . Their headquarters are in See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia . From the Baltic to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia extends a vast See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain broken only by the Urals . Large parts of it are still wooded, and the proportion of See also:

• FOREST

forest See also:

• LAND

land and See also:

• MARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare)
• MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258)
• MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882)
• MARSH, HERBERT (1757–1839)
• MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713)
• MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899)

marsh was no doubt much greater formerly . The Finno-Ugric tribes seem to shun the open See also:

• STEPPES

steppes but are widely spread in the wooded See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, especially on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of lakes and See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers . Their want of political influence renders them obscure, but they form a considerable See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern, See also:

• MIDDLE

middle and eastern provinces of Russia, but are not found much to the south of See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow (except in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east) or in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west (except in the Baltic provinces) . The difference of temperament between the Great Russians and the purer Slays such as the Little Russians is partly due to an infusion of Finnish See also:

• BLOOD

blood . Physically the Finno-Ugric races are as a See also:

• RULE

rule solidly built and, though there is considerable variation in height and the cephalic See also:

• INDEX

index, are mostly of small or See also:

• MEDIUM

medium stature, somewhat squat, and brachy- or See also:

• MESOCEPHALIC

mesocephalic . As a rule the skin is greyish or See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive coloured, the eyes See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey or See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, the See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair See also:

• LIGHT

light, the See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard scanty . Most of them seem deficient in See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and liveliness, both See also:

• MENTAL

mental and physical; they are slow, heavy, conservative, somewhat suspicious and vindictive, inclined to be taciturn and See also:

• MELANCHOLY (Gr. µe)tayXotia, from µEtas, black, and Xotii, bile)

melancholy .

On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand they are patient, persevering, industrious, faithful and honest . When their natural mistrust of strangers is overcome they are kindly and hospitable . I . Tribes and Nation,----The Ugrian subdivision, which seems to be in many respects the more See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive, consists of three peoples standing on very different levels of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, the FINNO-UGRIAN, or FINNO-UGRIC, the designation of a See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the Ural-Altaic See also:

• FAMILY

family of See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages and their speakers . The first See also:

• PART

part is the name given by their neighbours, though not used by themselves, to the inhabitants of the eastern shores of the Baltic . It is probably the same word as the Fermi of See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus and 'ivvoc of See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy, though it is not certain that those races were Finns in the See also:

• MODERN

modern sense . It possibly means people of the See also:

• FENS

fens or marshes, and corresponds to the native word Suomi, which appears to be derived from sues, a marsh . Finn and Finnish are used not only of the inhabitants of See also:

• FINLAND (Finnish, Suomi or Suomenmaa)

Finland but also in a more extended sense of similar tribes found in Russia and sometimes called Baltic Finns and See also:

• VOLGA (known to the Tatars as Etil, Jill or Atel; to the Finnish tribes as Rau, and to the ancients as Rha and Oarus)

Volga Finns . In this sense the Esthonian tribes (Baltic), the Laps, the Cheremis and Mordvins (Volga), and the See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian tribes are all Finns . The name is not, however, extended to the See also:

• OSTIAKS, or OSTYAKS

Ostiaks, Voguls and See also:

• MAGYARS

Magyars, who, though allied, form a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate subdivision called Ugrian, a name derived from Yura or Ugra, the country on either See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Ural Mountains, and first used by See also:

• CASTREN, MATTHIAS ALEXANDER (1813-1853)

Castren in Ostiaks and Voguls and the Hungarians . The Ostiaks (Ostyaks or Ostjaks) are a tribe of nomadic fishermen and hunters inhabiting at present the government of See also:

• TOBOLSK

Tobolsk and the banks of the Obi . They formerly osttata. extended into the government of See also:

• PERM

Perm on' the European side of the Ural Mountains .

The so-called Ostiaks of the See also:

• YENISEI

Yenisei appear to be a different See also:

• RACE

race and not to belong to the Finno-Ugrian See also:

• GROUP

group . The Ostiaks are still partially See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

pagan and See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship the See also:

• RIVER

River Obi . Allied to them are the Voguls, a similar nomadic tribe found on both sides of the Urals, and formerly Voguls. extending at least as far as the government of See also:

• VOLOGDA

Vologda . The languages of the Ostiaks and Voguls are allied, though not See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere dialects of one another, and form a small group separated from the languages of the Finns both Western and Eastern; For further details of these and other tribes see under the separate headings . According to the See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend, See also:

• NIMROD (-`s??, -i=s; Septuagint, Nef3pc5£: various reading in Gen. x. 8, Nef3p6av: Vulg. Nemrod)

Nimrod had two sons, Hunyor and Magyor . They married daughters of the See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince of the Alans and became the ancestors of the two kindred nations, Magyars See also:

• HUNS

Huns and Magyars or Hungarians . This story corre- or Han- garians, sponds with what can be ascertained scientifically about the origin of these peoples . It is probable that the Huns and Magyars were allied tribes of mixed descent comprising both See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish and Finno-Ugrian elements . The language is indisputably Finno-Ugrian, but the name Hungarian seems to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead back to the form Un-ugur, and to suggest Turkish connexions which are confirmed by the warlike habits of the Huns and Magyars . The same name possibly occurs in the form Hiung-nu as far east as the frontiers of See also:

• CHINA

China, but See also:

• RECENT

recent authorities are of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that the tribes from whom the present Hungarians are descended were formed originally in the See also:

• TEREK

Terek-See also:

• KUBAN

Kuban country to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• CAUCASUS

Caucasus, where a mixture of Turkish and Ugrian blood took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, a Ugrian language but Turkish mode of See also:

• LIFE

life predominating . They were also influenced by Iranians and the various tribes of the Caucasus . Both Huns and Magyars moved westwards, but the Huns invaded See also:

• EUROPE

Europe in the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century and made no permanent See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement in spite of the devastation they caused, whereas the Magyars remained for some centuries near the banks of the See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don .

According to tradition they were compelled to leave a country called Lebedia under the pressure of nomadic tribes, and moved westward under the leadership of seven See also:

• DUKES
• DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891)

dukes . They conquered See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary in the years 884—895i and the first king of their new dominions was called Arpad . For the chequered and often tragic history of the country see HUNGARY . The Magyars were converted to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity in the 11th century and adhered to the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman not the Eastern See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church . They have in all See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability entirely lost their See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient physique, but have retained their language, and traces of their older life may be seen in their fondness for horses and flocks . The following are the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal Finnish peoples . The Permian and See also:

• SYRYENIANS (also Sirianian, Syrjenian, Zyrenian, Zirianian, Zyrian and Zirian)

Syryenians may be treated as one tribe . The latter name is very variously spelt asSyrjenian, Sirianian,Zyrjenian, Permian Zirian, &c . They both See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call themselves Komi and and Syr- yenians. speak a mutually intelligible language, allied to Votiak . The name Bjarmisch is sometimes applied to this sub-group . Both Permians and Syryenians are found chiefly in the governments of Perm, Vologda and See also:

• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSK)
• ARCHANGEL (ARCHANGELSx)

Archangel, but there are a few Syryenians on the Siberian side of the Urals . The Syryenian headquarters are at the See also:

• TOWN

town of Ishma on the See also:

• PECHORA

Pechora, whereas the name Permian is more correctly restricted to the inhabitants of the right See also:

• BANK

bank of the upper See also:

• KAMA, or KAMADEVA

Kama .

Both probably extended much farther to the west in former times . The Syryenians are said to be more intelligent and active than most Finnish tribes and to make considerable journeys for trading purposes . They are possibly a mixed race . The Votiaks are a tribe of about a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of a million persons dwelling chiefly in the south-eastern part of the government Votiaks . of Viatka . Their language indicates that they have borrowed a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good deal from the See also:

• TATARS (the common form Tartars is less correct)

Tatars and See also:

• CHUVASHES, or TCHUVASHES

Chuvashes, and they seem to have little individuality, being described as weak both mentally and physically . They call themselves Ud-court or Urt-murt . About the 16th century some of them migrated, doubtless under the pressure of See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian advance, into the government of See also:

• UFA

Ufa and, the country being more fertile, are said to have improved in physique . The Cheremissians, or Tcheremissians or Cheremis, who call themselves Mari, inhabit the banks of the Volga, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Kazan . Those inhabiting the right Chem- bank of the Volga are physically stronger and are See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions . known as See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill Cheremiss . The evidence of place names makes it probable that their present position is the result of their being driven northwards by the Mordvins and then southwards by the Russians . There is some discrepancy between their language and their physical characteristics .

The former shows See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities to both Mordvinian and the Permian group, but389 their crania are said to be mainly See also:

• DOLICHOCEPHALIC (long-headed)

dolichocephalic, and it has been suggested that they are connected with the See also:

• NEOLITHIC, or LATER STONE AGE (Gr. vEOr, new, and XLOos, stone)

neolithic dolichocephalic population of See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• LADOGA (formerly NEvo)

Ladoga . They are See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle and honest, but neither active nor intelligent . The See also:

• MORDVINIANS

Mordvinians, also called Mordva, Mordvins and Mordvs, are scattered over the provinces near the middle Volga, especially Nizhniy See also:

• NOVGOROD
• NOVGOROD (formerly known as V elikiy-Novgorod, Great Novgorod)

Novgorod, Kazan, See also:

• PENZA

Penza, See also:

• TAMBOV

Tambov, See also:

• SIMBIRSK

Simbirsk, Ufa and even See also:

• ORENBURG

Orenburg . Though not continuous, Mord- viaians . their settlements are considerable both in extent and population . They are the most important of the Eastern Finns, and their traditions speak of a See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital and of a king who fought with the Tatars . They are mentioned as Mo;See also:

• DENS, PETER (1690-1775)

dens as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as the 6th century, but do not now use the name, calling themselves after one of their two divisions, Moksha or Erza . Their country is still covered with forest to a large extent . Their language is on the one side allied to Cheremissian . On the other it shows a nearer approach to Finnish (Suomi) than the other Eastern languages of the family, but it has also constructions See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to itself . The Lapps are found in See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway, See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and Finland . They call themselves Sabme, but are called Finns by the Norwegians .

They are the shortest and most See also:

• BRACHYCEPHALIC (Gr. for short-headed)

brachycephalic race Lapps. in Europe . The See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are nomads who live by pasturing See also:

• REINDEER

reindeer, and are known as See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

Mountain Lapps, but others have become more or less settled and live by See also:

• HUNTING (the verbal substantive from " hunt "; O. Eng. huntian, hunta; apparently connected with O. Eng. hentan, Gothic hinpan, to capture, O.H.G. hunda,booty)

hunting or fishing . From ancient times the Lapps have had a great reputation among the Finns and other neighbouring nations for skill in sorcery . The Esthonians are the peasantry of the Russian See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province See also:

• ESTHONIA (Ger. Ehstland and Ehshland, Esthonian Eestimae and Meie-maa, also Viroma and Rahvama; Lettish Iggaun Senna)

Esthonia and the neighbouring districts . They were See also:

• SERFS, SERROS

serfs until 18r7 when they were liberated, but their See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition remained unsatisfactory and led to a serious See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion in Estda- nians . 1859 . They are practically a branch of the Finns, and are hardly separable from the other Finnish tribes inhabiting the Baltic provinces . The name Est or Ehst, by which they are known to foreigners, appears to be the same as the Aestii of Tacitus, and to have properly belonged to quite a different tribe . They call themselves Ma me's, or country people, and their land Rahwama or Wiroma (cf . Finnish, Virolaiset, Esthonians.) Though not See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to other tribes in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general intelligence, they have become more civilized owing to their more intimate connexion with the Russian and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German population around them . Lies, Livlanders or Livonians is the See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

dame given to the old Finnish-speaking population of west Livland or See also:

• LIVONIA, or LIVLAND (Russian, Liflandia)

Livonia and north Kurland . We hear of them as a warlike and predatory pagan tribe in the middle ages, and it is possible that they were a mixed Letto-Finnish race from the beginning .

In modern times they have become almost completely absorbed by Letts, and their language is only spoken in a few places on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of Kurland . It has indeed been disputed if it still exists . It is known as Livish or Livonian and is allied to Esthonian . The Votes (not to be confounded with the Votiaks), also called See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Chudes and Vatjalaiset, apparently represent the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original inhabitants of Ingria, the district round votes . St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, but have decreased before the advance of the Russians and also of Karelians from the north . They are heard of in the rrth century, but now occupy only about See also:

• THIRTY

thirty parishes in north-west Ingria . The Vepsas or Vepses, also called Northern Chudes, are another tribe allied to the Esthonians, but are more numerous than the Votes . They are found in the district of Tikhvinsk Vepsas. and other parts of the government of Old Novgorod, and apparently extended farther east into the government of Vologda in former times . Linguistically both the Votes and Vepsas are closely related to the Esthonians . The Finns proper or Suomi, as they call themselves, are the most important and civilized division of the group . They inhabit at present the See also:

• GRAND

grand duchy of Finland and the pines. adjacent governments, especially Olonetz, See also:

• TVER

Tver and St Petersburg . Formerly a tribe of them called Kainulaiset was also found in Sweden, whence the Swedes call the Finns Live- nians .

Qven . At present there are two principal subdivisions of Finns, the Tavastlanders or Hamalaiset, who occupy the southern and western parts of the grand duchy, and the Karelians orKarjalaiset found in the east and north, as far as Lake See also:

• ONEGA

Onega and towards the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

White Sea . The former, and generally speaking, all the inhabitants of the grand duchy have undergone a strong See also:

• SWEDISH

Swedish influence . There is a considerable admixture of Swedish blood; the language is full of Swedish words; Christianity is universal; and the upper classes and townspeople are mainly Swedish in their habits and speech, though of See also:

• LATE

late a persistent See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt has been made to Russify the country . The Finns have much the same mental and moral characteristics as the other allied tribes, but have reached a far higher intellectual and See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage . Several collections of their popular and mythological See also:

• POETRY

poetry have been made, the most celebrated of which is the See also:

• KALEWALA, or KALEVALA

Kalewala, compiled by See also:

• LONNROT, ELIAS (1802-1884)

Lonnrot about 1835, and there is a copious modern literature . The study of the national languages and antiquities is prosecuted in See also:

• HELSINGFORS (Finnish Helsinki)

Helsingfors and other towns with much energy: several learned See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies have been formed and considerable results published, partly in Finnish . It is clear that this scientific activity, though animated by a patriotic Finnish spirit, owes much to Swedish training in the past . Besides the literary language there are several dialects, the most important of which is that of Savolaks . The Karelian are not usually regarded as separate from the Finns, though they are a distinct tribe as much as the Vepsas Karenens. and Votes . Living farther east they have come less under Swedish and more under Russian influence than the inhabitants of West Finland; but, since many of the districts which they inhabit are out of the way and neglected, this influence has not been strong, so that they have adopted less of European civilization, and in places preserved their own customs more than the Westerners . They are of a slighter and better pros portioned build than the Finns, more enterprising, lively and friendly, but less persevering and tenacious .

They number about 260,000, of whom about 63,000 live in Olonetz and 195,000 in Tver and Novgorod, but in the southern districts are less distinguished from the Russian population . They belong to the Russian Church, whereas the Finns of the grand duchy are Protestants . There also appear to be See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic traces of a Karelian population in See also:

• KALUGA

Kaluga, See also:

• YAROSLAVL
• YAROSLAVL, or YAROSLAV

Yaroslavl, See also:

• VLADIMIR
• VLADIMIR, ST (c. 956-1015)

Vladimir, Vologda and Tambov . It was among them that the Kalewala was collected, chiefly in East Finland and Olonetz . There is some difference of opinion as to whether the See also:

• SAMOYEDES

Samoyedes should be included among the Finno-Ugrian tribes or be given the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a separate division See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to Finnossmo- Ugrian and Turkish . The linguistic question is reties . discussed below . The Samoyedes are a See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad tribe who wander with their reindeer over the treeless plains which border on the White and Kara seas on either side of the Urals . In culture and habits they resemble the Finno-Ugrian tribes, and there seems to be no adequate See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason for separating them . Various other peoples have been referred to the Finno-Ugrian group, but some doubt must remain as to the propriety other See also:

• LAC

lac/uslon& of the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, either 'because they are now See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct, or because they are suspected of having changed their language . The original Bulgarians, who had their See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home on the Volga before they invaded the country which now bears their name, were probably a tribe similar to the Magyars, though all See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of their language is lost . It has been disputed whether the See also:

• KHAZARS (known also as Chozars, as 'Aal r?'rpor or X6 apor in Byzantine writers, as Khazirs in Armenian and Khwalisses in Russian chronicles, and Ugri Bielii in Nestor)

Khazars, who in the middle ages occupied parts of south Russia and the shores of the See also:

• CASPIAN

Caspian, were Finno-Ugrians or Turks, and there is the same doubt about the See also:

• AVARS

Avars and Pechenegs, which without linguistic evidence remains insoluble .

Nor is the difference ethnographically important . The formation of hordes of warlike bodies, See also:

• HALF

half tribes, half armies, composed of different races, was a characteristic of Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia, and it was probably often a, See also:

• MATTER

matter of See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance what language was adopted as the See also:

• COMMON

common speech . At the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day the See also:

• BASHKIRS

Bashkirs, Meshchers and Tepters, whospeak Tatar languages, are thought to be Finnish in origin, as are also the Chuvashes, whose language is Tatar strongly modified by Finnish influence . The little known Soyots of the headwaters of the Yenisei are also said to be Finno-Ugrians . The name See also:

• CHUDE

Chude appears to be properly applied to the Vepsas and Votes but is extended by popular usage in Russia to all Finno-Ugrian tribes, and to all extinct tribes of whatever race who have See also:

• LEFT

left tombs, monuments or See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of See also:

• MINING

mining operations in European Russia or Siberia . Some Russian archaeologists use it specifically of the Permian group . But its See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension is so vague that it is better to discard it as a scientific See also:

• TERM

term . II . Languages.—The Finno-Ugric languages are generally considered as a division of the Ural-Altaic group, which consists of four families: Turkish, Mongol, Manchu and Finno-Ugric, including Samoyede unless it is reckoned separately as a fifth . The chief See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the group is that See also:

• AGGLUTINATION (Lat. ad, and gluten, glutinare, literally to fasten together with glue)

agglutination, or the addition of suffixes, is the only method of word-formation, prefixes and significant change of vowels being unknown, as is also gender . This suggests an See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity with many other languages, such as the ancient Accadian or Sumerian, and See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese . A connexion between the Finno-Ugric and See also:

• DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit Dravida)

Dravidian languages has also been suggested .

On the other hand, the more highly developed agglutinative languages, such as Finnish, approach the inflected See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan type, so that the Aryan languages may have been developed from an ancestor not unlike the Ural-Altaic group . The Finno-Ugrian languages are distinguished from the other divisions of the Ural-Altaic group both in See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar and vocabulary . Compared with Mongol and Manchu they have a much greater See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of forms, both in declension and conjugation; the suffixes form one word with the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root and are not wholly or partially detachable postpositions; the pronominal element is freely represented in the suffixes added to both verbs and nouns . These features are also found in the Turkish languages, but Finno-Ugrian has a much greater variety of cases denoting position or See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion, and the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of the case termination with the noun is more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete; in some languages the See also:

• OBJECT

object can be incorporated in the verb, which does not occur in Turkish, but the negative is rarely (Cheremissian) thus incorporated after the Turkish See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion (e.g. yazmak, " to write "; yazmamak, " not to write "), and in some languages takes pronominal suffixes (Finnish en Mc, et tule, eivdt tule, " I, you, they do not come ") . Vowel-See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony is completely observed in Finnish and Magyar, but in the other languages is imperfectly developed, or has been lost under Russian influence . Relative pronouns and particles exist and are fully developed in some languages . The tendency to form compounds, which is not characteristic of Turkish, is very marked in Finnish and Hungarian, and is said also to be found in Samoyede, Cheremissian and Syryenian . The original See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence seems to be that the governing word follows the word governed, but there are many exceptions to this, particularly in Hungarian where the arrangement is very See also:

• FREE

free . In vocabulary the pronouns agree fairly well with those of Turkish, Mongol and Manchu, but there is little resemblance between the See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers . Many of the languages contain numerous Tatar and Turkish See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan-words, but with this exception the resemblance of vocabulary is not striking and indicates an ancient separation . But the similarity in the process of word-See also:

• BUILDING

building and of the elements used, even if they have not the same sense, as well as analogies in the general construction of sentences and in some details (e.g. the use of the See also:

• INFINITIVE

infinitive or verbal substantive), seem to justify the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis of an original relationship with the Turkish languages, which in their turn have-connexions with the other See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups . Samoyede is classed by some as a separate group and by some among the Finno-Ugrian languages, but it at any See also:

• RATE

rate displays a far closer resemblance to them in both grammar and vocabulary than do any of the Turkish languages .

The numerals are different, but the See also:

• PERSONAL

personal and interrogative pronouns and many common words (e.g. joha, " river," Finn. joki; sava, " good," Finn. hywd; kolc, " See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish," Finn. kala) show a considerable resemblance . The inflection of nouns is very like that found in Finno-Ugrian but that of the verb differs, verb and noun being imperfectly differentiated . In detail, however, the verbal suffixes show analogies to those of Finno-Ugrian . Vowel - harmony and weakening of consonants occur as in Finnish . Excluding Samoyede, the Finno-Ugrian languages may be divided into two sections: (r) Ugrian, comprising Ostiak, Vogul and Magyar; and (2) Finnish . The Permian languages (Syryenian, Permian and Votiak) form a distinct group within this latter See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, and the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder may be divided into the Volga group (Cheremissian and Mordvinian) and the West Finnish (Lappish, Esthonian and Finnish proper) . The Ugrian languages appear to have separated from the Finnish branch before the systems of declension or conjugation were developed . Their case suffixes seem to be later formations, though we find, t, tl or k for the plural and traces of 1 as a local suffix . Ostiak and Vogul, like Samoyede, have a dual . Moods and tenses are less numerous but the number of verbal forms is increased by those in which the pronominal object is incorporated . Hungarian has naturally advanced enormously beyond the stage reached by Ostiak and Vogul, and shows marks of strong European influence, but also retains primitive features . Vowel-harmony is observed (vdrok, " I await," but verek, " I strike ") .

The verb has two sets of terminations, according as it is transitive or intransitive, and the pronominal object is sometimes incorporated . Alone among Finno-Ugrian languages it has developed an See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article, and the See also:

• ADJECTIVE (from the Lat. adjectives, added)

adjective is inflected when used as a predicate though not as an attribute (JO emberek, " good men," but Az emberek Pk, " the men are good ") . There is great freedom in the order of words and, as in Finnish, a tendency to form See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long compounds . The Finnish languages are not divided from the Ugrian by any striking See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, but show greater resemblances to one another in details . None of them have a dual and only Mordvinian an See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective conjugation . The case See also:

• SYSTEM

system is elaborate and generally comprises twelve or fifteen forms . The negative conjugation is peculiar; there are negative adjectives ending in See also:

• TENT

tent or tom and abessive cases (e.g . Finnish syyttd, without a cause, tiedotta, without knowledge) . Permian, Syryenian and Votiak exhibit this common development less fully than the more western languages . They are less completely inflected than the Finnish languages and more thoroughly agglutinative in the strict sense . In vocabulary, e.g. the numerals, they show resemblances to the Ugrian division . Syryenian has older literary remains than any Finno-Ugrian language except Hungarian .

In the latter part of the 14th century Russian missionaries composed in it various manuals and See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations, using a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet for the purpose . Unlike the Finnish and Esthonian branch, the languages of the Volga Finns (Mordvinian and Cheremissian) have been influenced by Russian and Tatar rather than by Scandinavian, and hence show apparent differences . But Mordvinian has points of detailed resemblance to Finnish which seem to point to a comparatively late separation, e.g. the use of kemen for ten, -nza as the possessive suffix of the third personal pronoun, the See also:

• REGULAR

regular formation of the imperfect with i, the infinitive with ma, and the participle with f (Finnish va) . On the other hand it has many peculiarities . It retains an objective conjugation like the Ugrian languages, and has developed two forms of declension, the definite and indefinite . Cheremissian has affinities to both the Permian languages and Mordvinian . It resembles Syryenian in its case terminations and also in marking the plural by interposing a distinct syllable (Syry. yas, See also:

• CHER

Cher. vlya) between the singular and the case suffixes . Most of the numerals are like Syryenian but kandekhsye, indekhsye, for eight and nine, recall Finnish forms (kandeksan, yhdeksdn), as do also the pronouns . The connexion between the various West Finnish languages is more obvious than between those already discussed . Lappish (or Lapponic) forms a See also:

• LINK

link between them and Mordvinian . Its pronouns are remarkably like the Mordvinian equivalents, but391 the general system of declension and conjugation, both See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive and negative, is much as in Finnish . Superficially, however, the resemblance is somewhat obscured by the difference in See also:

• PHONETICS (Gr. Davit, voice)

phonetics, for Lappish has an extraordinary fondness for diphthongs and also an unusually ample See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision of consonants .

The affinity of Esthonian (together with Votish, Vepsish and Livish) to Finnish is obvious not only to the philologist but to the casual learner . In a few cases it shows older forms than Finnish, but on the whole is less primitive and has assumed under See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign influence the features of a European language even more thoroughly . The vowel-harmony is found only in the Dorpat See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect and there imperfectly, the pronominal affixes are not used, and the negative has become an unvarying particle, though in Vepsish and Votish it takes suffixes as in Finnish . On the other hand, the See also:

• LAWS

laws for the change of consonants, the general system of phonetics, the declension, the pronouns and the positive conjugation of the verb all closely resemble Finnish . Esthonian has two chief dialects, those of See also:

• REVAL, or REVEL (Russ. Revel, formerly Kolyvan; Esthonian, Tallina and Tannilin)

Reval and Dorpat, and a certain amount of literary culture, the best-known See also:

• WORK

work being the national epic or Kalewi-poeg . Finnish proper is divided into two chief dialects, the Karelian or Eastern, and the Tavastland or Western . The spoken language of the Karelians is corrupt and mixed with Russian, but the Kalewala and their other old songs are written in a pure Finnish dialect, which has come to be accepted as the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary language of poetry throughout modern Finland, just as the Homeric dialect was used by the Greeks for epic poetry . It is more archaic than the Tavastland dialect and preserves many old forms which have been lost elsewhere, but its utterance is softer and it sometimes rejects consonants which are retained in ordinary speech, e.g. saa'a, See also:

• KOSEN

kosen for saada, kosken . The affinity of Finnish to the more eastern languages of the group is clear, but it has been profoundly influenced by Scandinavian and in its present form consists of non-Aryan material recast in an Aryan and European See also:

• MOULD

mould . Not only are some of the simplest words borrowed from Scandinavian, but the grammar has been radically modified . Un-Aryan peculiarities have been rejected, though perhaps less than in Esthonian . The various forms of nouns and verbs are not merely roots with a See also:

• STRING

string of obvious suffixes attached, but the termination forms a whole with the root as in See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin inflections; the adjective is declined and compared and agrees with its substantive; See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound tenses are formed with the aid of the See also:

• AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help)

auxiliary verb, and there is a full See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of relative pronouns and particles .

Finnish and Hungarian together with Turkish are interesting examples of non-Aryan languages trying to participate, by both See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation and See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation, in the literary life of Europe, but it may be doubted if the experiment is successful . The sense of effort is See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt less in Hungarian than in the other languages; though they are admirable See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments for terse conversation or popular poetry, there appears to be some deep-seated difference in the force of the verb and the structure of phrases which renders them clumsy and complicated when they attempt to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express sentences of the type common in European literature . excluded from pagan religious ceremonies . The most primitive form of See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house consists of poles inclined towards one another and covered with skins or sods, so as to form a circular See also:

• SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat. scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has been suggested)

screen round a See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire; See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter houses are partly underground . Long See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-shoes are used in winter and boats are largely employed in summer . The Finns in particular are very good See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen . The Ostiaks and Samoyedes still See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin ornaments in wooden moulds . The variation of the higher numerals in the different languages, which are sometimes obvious loan words, shows that the original system did not extend beyond seven, and the aptitude for calculating and trading is not great . Several thousands of the Ostiaks, Voguls and Cheremiss are still unbaptized, and much paganism lingers among the nominal Christians, and in poetry such as the Kalewala . The deities are chiefly nature See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits and the importance of the several gods varies as the tribes are hunters, fishermen, &c . See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

Sun or See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky worship is found among the Samoyedes and See also:

• JUMALA

Jumala, the Finnish word for See also:

• GOD

god, seems originally to mean sky . The Ostiaks worship a See also:

• WATER

water-spirit of the river Obi and also a See also:

• THUNDER

thunder-god .

We hear of a forest-god among the Finns, Lapps and Cheremiss .. There are also See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan gods worshipped by each clan with special ceremonies . Traces of ancestor-worship are also found . The Samoyedes and Ostiaks are said to See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice to ghosts, and the Ostiaks to make images of the more important dead, which are tended and honoured, as if alive, for some years . Images are found in the tombs and barrows of most tribes, and the Samoyedes, Ostiaks and Voguls still use idols, generally of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood . See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

Animal sacrifices are offered, and the lips of the idol sometimes smeared with blood . See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

Quaint combinations of Christianity and paganism occur; thus the Cheremiss are said to sacrifice to the Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary . The See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that disease is due to See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession by an evil spirit, and can be both caused and cured by spells, seems to prevail among all tribes, and in general extraordinary power is supposed to reside in incantations and magical formulae . This belief is conspicuous in the Kalewala, and almost every tribe has its own collection of prayers, healing charms and spells to be used on the most varied occasions . A knowledge of these formulae is possessed by wizards (Finnish noita) corresponding to the Shamans of the Altaic peoples . They are exorcists and also mediums who can ascertain the will of the gods; a magic See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum plays a great part in their invocations, and their office is generally hereditary . The non-Buddhist elements of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese and Japanese See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion present the same features as are found among the Finno-Ugrians—natureworship, ancestor-worship and See also:

• EXORCISM (Gr. EEop,d av, to conjure out)

exorcism—but in a much more elaborate and developed form .

IV . History.—Most of the Finno-Ugrian tribes have no history or written records, and little in the way of traditions of their past . In their later See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the Hungarians and Finns enter to some extent the course of ordinary European history . For the earlier period we have no positive See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, but the labours of investigators, especially in Finland, have collected a great number of archaeological and philological data from which an account of the ancient wanderings of these tribes may be constructed . Barrows containing skulls and ornaments may See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the advance of a special form of culture, and language may be of assistance; if we find, for instance, a language with loan words of an archaic type, we may conclude that it was in contact with the other language from which it borrowed at the time when such forms were current . But clearly all such deductions contain a large element of theory, and the following See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch is given with all reserve . The Finno-Ugrian tribes originally lived together east of the Urals and spoke a common language . It is not certain if they were all of the same physical type, for the association of different races speaking one language is common in central Asia . They were hunters and fishermen, not agriculturists . At an unknown period the Finns, still undivided, moved into Europe and perhaps settled on the Volga and Oka . They had perhaps arrived there before 15oo B.C., learned some rudiments of See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture, and developed their system of numbers up to ten . They were still in the neolithic stage .

About 600 B.C. they came in contact with an Iranian people, from whom they learned the use ofmetals, and borrowed numerals for a See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred (Finnish sata, Ostiak sat, Magyar szaz; cf . Zend sata) and a thousand (Magyar ezer; cf. kazanra and hazar) . Magyar and some other languages also borrowed a word for ten (tiz, cf. das) . This Iranian race may perhaps have been the Scythians, who are believed by many authorities to have been Iranians and to be represented by the Osetians of the Caucasus . There was probably a See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade route up the Volga in the 4th century B.C . About that time the Western Finns must have broken away from the Mordvinians and wandered north-westwards . At a period not much later than the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, they must have come in contact with Letto-Lithuanian peoples in the Baltic provinces, and also with Scandinavians . Whether they came in contact with the latter first in the Baltic provinces or in Finland itself is disputed, as there may have been Scandinavians in the Baltic provinces . But the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of tombs and barrows seems to indicate that they entered Finland not from the east through Karelia but from the Baltic provinces by sea to Satakunta and the south-east coast, whence they extended eastwards . From both See also:

• LITHUANIANS

Lithuanians and Scandinavians they borrowed an enormous quantity of culture-words and probably the ideas and materials they indicate . Thus the Finnish words for See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold, king and everything concerned with government are of Scandinavian origin: Their See also:

• MIGRATION

migration to Finland was probably complete about A.D . 800 .

Meanwhile the Slav tribes known later as Russians were coming up from the south and pressed the Finns northwards, overwhelming but not annihilating them in the country between St Petersburg and Moscow . The same See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement tended to drive the Eastern Finns and Ugrians backwards towards the east . The Finns know the Russians by the name of Vendja, or See also:

• WENDS

Wends, and as this name is not used by Slays themselves but by Scandinavians and Teutons, it seems clear that they arrived among the Finns as greater strangers than the Scandinavians and known by a foreign name . Christianity was perhaps first preached to the Finns as early as A.D. See also:

• ROOD (O.E. rod, a stick, another form of " rod, O.E. rodd, possibly cognate with Lat. rudis, a staff)

rood, but there was a long political and religious struggle with the Swedes . At the end of the 13th century Finland was definitely converted and annexed to Sweden, remaining a dependency of that country until i8og, when it was ceded to Russia . The Ugrians and Eastern Finns took no part in the westward movement and did not fall under western influences but came into contact with Tatar tribes and were more or less Tatarized . In some cases this took the form of the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of a Tatar language, in others (Mordvin, Cheremis and Votiak) a large number of Tatar words were borrowed . We also know that there were considerable settlements of these tribes, perhaps amounting to states, on the Volga and in south-eastern Russia . Such was Great See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria, which continued until destroyed by the Mongols in 12,38 . The pressure of tribes farther east acting on these settlements dislodged sections of them from time to time and created the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of invasions which devastated the East Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire from the 5th century onwards . But we do not know what were the languages spoken by the Huns, Bulgarians, Pechenegs and Avars, so that we cannot say whether they were Turks, Finns or Ugrians, nor does it follow that a See also:

• HORDE

horde speaking a Ugrian language were necessarily Ugrians by race . An inspection of the performances of the various tribes, as far as we can distinguish them, suggests that the Turks or Tatars were the warlike element .

The names Hun and Hungarian may possibly be the same as Hiung-nu, but we cannot assume that this tribe passed across Asia unchanged in language and physique . The Hungarians entered on their present phase at the end of the 9th century of this era, when they crossed the Carpathians and conquered the old See also:

• PANNONIA

Pannonia and See also:

• DACIA

Dacia . For half a century or so before this invasion they are said to have inhabited Atelkuzu, probably a district between the See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper and the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube . The isolated groups of Hungarians now found in Transylvania and called See also:

• SZEKLERS, or SZEKELS (Szekely, Lat. Siculi)

Szeklers are considered the purest descendants of the invading Magyars . Those who settled in the plains of Hungary probably mingled there with remnants of Huns, Avars and earlier invaders, and also with subsequent invaders, such as Pechenegs and humans .