See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, See also:

• LAT

Lat. Florentia)  , formerly the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany, now the capital of a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, and the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth largest See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . It is situated 430 46' N., r t° 14' E., on both See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• RIVER

river See also:

• ARNO (anc. Arnus)
• ARNO, ARN

Arno, which at this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between spurs of the See also:

• APENNINES (Gr. 'A1T- vvLvos, Lat. Appenninus—in both cases used in the singular)

Apennines . The city is 165 ft. above See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level, and occupies an See also:

• AREA

area of 3 sq. m . (area of the See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

commune, 161 sq. m.) . The See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological formation of the See also:

• SOIL

soil belongs to the See also:

• QUATERNARY

Quaternary and See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in its upper strata, and to the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene and Cretaceous in the See also:

• LOWER

lower . Pietra forte of the Cretaceous period is quarried See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the city, and has been used for centuries as paving See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone and for the buildings . Pietra See also:

• SERENA, or LA SERENA

serena or macigno, a stone of a See also:

• FIRM

firm texture also used for See also:

• BUILDING

building purposes, is quarried at See also:

• MONTE

Monte Ceceri below See also:

• FIESOLE (anc. Faesulae, q.v.)

Fiesole . The soil is very fertile; See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn, See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives, vines, See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit trees of many kinds See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover both the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain and the surrounding hills; the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine, the See also:

• CYPRESS (Cupressus)

cypress, the ilex and the See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar, while many other varieties are represented . The gardens and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields produce an abundance of See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers, which justify the city's See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of la cited dei Mori . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate and Sanitary Conditions.—The climate of See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence is very variable, ranging from severe See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold accompanied by high winds from the north in See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter to See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat in the summer, while in See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring-See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time sudden and rapid changes of temperature are frequent . At the same time the climate is usually very agreeable from the end of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February to the beginning of . See also:

• JULY

July, and from the end of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November .

The See also:

• AVERAGE

average temperature throughout the See also:

• YEAR

year is about 570 Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8°, and the minimum 36.50, sometimes sinking to 210 . The longest See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day is 15 See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours and 33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes; The average rainfall is about 371 inches . Epidemic diseases ,are rare and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children's diseases mild; See also:

• CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

cholera has visited Florence several times, but the city has been See also:

• FREE

free from it for many years . See also:

• DIPHTHERIA (from 8c4BEpa, a skin or membrane)

Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare intervals and in isolated cases . Typhoid, See also:

• PNEUMONIA (Gr. ?rveu AMP, lung)

pneumonia, See also:

• TUBERCULOSIS

tuberculosis, See also:

• MEASLES, (Morbilli, Rubeola; the M. E. word is maseles, properly a diminutive of a word meaning " spot," O.H.G. m¢sa, cf. " mazer "; the equivalent is Ger. Masern; Fr. Rougeole)

measles and scarlatina, and See also:

• INFLUENZA (syn. " grip," la grippe)

influenza are the commonest illnesses . The drainage See also:

• SYSTEM

system is still somewhat imperfect, but the See also:

• WATER

water brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good, and the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general sanitary conditions are satisfactory . Public Buildings.—Of the very numerous Florentine churches the Duomo (See also:

• SANTA

Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most Churches. important, founded in 1298 on the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, completed by See also:

• BRUNELLESCHI (or BRUNELLESCO), FILIPPO

Brunelleschi, and consecrated in 1436; the See also:

• FACADE

facade, however, was not finished until the loth See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century—it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and unveiled in 1888 . See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

Close by the Duomo is the no less famous Campanile built by See also:

• GIOTTO

Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with exquisite bas-reliefs . Opposite is the See also:

• BAPTISTERY (Baptislerium, in the Greek Church 4wrurrilpiov)

Baptistery built by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th century on the site of an earlier See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, and adorned with beautiful See also:

• BRONZE

bronze doors by See also:

• GHIBERTI, LORENZO (137$–1455)

Ghiberti in the 15th century . The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence . The existence of these See also:

• WORKS

works of See also:

• ART

art attracts students from all countries, and a See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German art school subsidized by the imperial See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government has been instituted . The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the residences of the See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble families of Florence .

Among others we may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government of the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic and now the See also:

• TOWN

town See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the See also:

• MEDICI
• MEDICI, GIACOMO (1817-1882)

Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of the See also:

• STROZZI

Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of Florentine quattrocento See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture), See also:

• CORSINI

Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti (the royal See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace), &c . The palace of the Arte della Lana orgild of See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is the headquarters of the See also:

• DANTE

Dante Society . The centre of Florence, which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, was pulled down in 1880-189o, but, unfortunately, sufficient care was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic and See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic value which might have been spared without impairing the See also:

• WORK

work of sanitation, while the new structures erected in their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, especially those in the Piaza See also:

• VITTORIO

Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine architecture . The question aroused many polemics at the time both in Italy and abroad . After the new centre was built, a society called the Societd per la difesa di Firenze antica was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this connexion . The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the older parts; but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic feeling . The viali or boulevards See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form pleasant residential streets with gardens, and the system of building See also:

• SEPARATE

separate houses for each See also:

• FAMILY

family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming more and more general . Florence possesses four important See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries besides a number of .smaller collections . The Biblioteca Nazionale, originally founded by See also:

• ANTONIO
• ANTONIO (1429—1498)
• ANTONIO, NICOLAS (1617-1684)

Antonio Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the Libraries. right, shared by the Vittorio Emanuele library of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since 1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege with regard to works printed in Tuscany) . It contains some 5oo,.'oo printed volumes, 700,000 See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings (including 284 by See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert Direr), nearly 20,000 See also:

• MSS

MSS., and 40,000 letters, The number of readers in 1904 was over 50,000 . Unfortunately, however, the confusion engendered by a defective organization has See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been a byword among the See also:

• PEOPLE

people; there is no printed See also:

• CATALOGUE (a Fr. adaptation of the Gr. KaraXoyos, a register, from Karalyety, to enrol or pick out)

catalogue, quantities of books are buried in packing-cases and unavailable, the collection of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign books is very poor, hardly any new works being See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased, and the building itself is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to more suitable quarters . The Biblioteca Marucelliana, founded in 1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 See also:

• INCUNABULA

incunabula, 17,000 engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publications .

The Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana, founded in 1571, has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

Elder, and was. enlarged by See also:

• PIERO (1443—1496)

Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the Magnificent . Various princes and private persons presented it with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of whithwasthecollectionofeditiones principes given by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count d'Elci, in 1841, and the See also:

• ASHBURNHAM, JOHN (c. 1603-1671)

Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by the See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian Government in 1885 . It contains nearly lo,000 MSS., including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a number of valuable See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and 1 i,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with See also:

• PALAEOGRAPHY (Gr. aaXalbs, ancient, and ypal6ew, to write)

palaeography; it is in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries . The Biblioteca Riccardiana, founded in the 16th century by Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books and 65o incunabula, chiefly See also:

• RELATING

relating to Florentine See also:

• HISTORY

history . The See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state archives are among the most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete in Italy, and contain over 450,000 falze and registri and 126,000 charters, covering the period from 726 to 1856 . Few cities are as See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich as Florence in collections of works of artistic and historic See also:

• INTEREST

interest, although the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of them belong to a comparatively limited period—from Galleries the 13th to the 16th century . The chief art galleries of Pine are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia . The two Arts and former are among the finest in the See also:

• WORLD

world, and are Museums. filled with masterpieces by See also:

• RAPHAEL (Hebrew smm, " God heals ")

Raphael, See also:

• ANDREA, GIOVANNI (1275-1348)

Andrea del Sarto, See also:

• PERUGINO, PIETRO (1446-1524)

Perugino, Ghirlandaio, See also:

• BOTTICELLI, SANDRO

Botticelli, the See also:

• LIPPI

Lippi, and many other Florentine, Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous admirable examples of See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique, See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval and See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance Admtnts- and an elective town See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council (consiglio comunale) . tendon . The city is the seat of a See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of cassation (for See also:

• CIVIL

civil cases only), of a court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, besides See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor tribunals . It is the headquarters of an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps, and an archiepiscopal see . There are 22 public elementary See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools for boys and 18 for girls (See also:

• EDUCATION

education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 education. pupils, and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils .

Secondary education is provided by one higher and four lower technical schools with 1375 pupils, three ginnasii or lower classical schools, and three licei or higher classical schools, with moo pupils,: and three training colleges with over 700 pupils . Higher education is imparted at the university (Istituto di studii superiori e di perfezionamento), with 600 to 65o students; although only comprising the faculties of literature, See also:

• MEDICINE

medicine and natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science, it is, as regards the first-named See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty, one of the most important institutions in Italy . The See also:

• ORIGINAL

original Studio Fiorentino was founded in the 14th century, and acquired considerable fame as a centre of learning under the Medici, enhanced by the presence in Florence of many learned Greeks who had fled from See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople after its See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture by the See also:

• TURKS

Turks (1453) . Although in 1472 some of the faculties and several of the professors were transferred to See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa, it still retained importance, and in the 17th and 18th centuries it originated a number of learned See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies . In 1859 after the See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was revived and reorganized; since then it has become to some extent a See also:

• NATIONAL

national centre of learning and culture, attracting students from other parts of Italy, partly on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the fact that it is in Florence that the purest Italian is spoken . The revival of classical studies on scientific principles in See also:

• MODERN

modern Italy may be said to have begun in Florence, and great activity has also been displayed in reviving the study of Dante; Dante lectures being given regularly by scholars and men of letters from all parts of the country, above the church of Or See also:

• SAN

San Michele as in the middle ages, under the auspices of the Societd Dantesca . Palaeography, history and See also:

• ROMANCE

Romance See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages are among the other subjects to which especial importance is given . Besides the Istituto di studii superiori there is the Istituto di scienze sociali " Cesare See also:

• ALFIERI, VITTORIO, COUNT (1749-1803)

Alfieri," founded by the marchese Alfieri di Sostegno for the education of aspirants to the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic and consular services, and for students of See also:

• ECONOMICS

economics and social sciences (about 50 students) ; an See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy of See also:

• FINE

fine arts, a See also:

• CONSERVATOIRE (the Fr. equivalent of Ital. Conservatorio, Ger. Conservatorium, from Med. Lat. conservatorium, a place where anything is preserved, Lat. conservare, to preserve)

conservatoire of See also:

• MUSIC

music, a higher See also:

• FEMALE

female training-See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college with 15o students, a number of professional and See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade schools, and an academof recitation . There are also many academies and learned See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies of different kinds, of which one of the most important is the Accademia della Crusca for the study of the Italian See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, which undertook the publication of a monumental See also:

• DICTIONARY

dictionary . Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the mostimportant being that of Santa,Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folca Portinari, the See also:

• FATHER

father of Dante's See also:

• BEATRICE

Beatrice, has been Charities, thoroughly renovated according to modern scientific principles . There are numerous other hospitals both etc. general and See also:

• SPECIAL

special, a foundling See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital dating from the 13th century (Santa Maria degli Innocenti), an See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute for the See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind, one for the See also:

• DEAF

deaf and dumb, &c . Most of the hospitals and other charitable institutions are endowed, but the endowments are supplemented by private contributions .

Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and does considerable business in See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, oil and See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain, and supplies the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds . There are no important See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, except a few See also:

• FLOUR

flour-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, some See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass works, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron foundries, a motor See also:

• CAR (Late Lat. carra)

car factory, See also:

• STRAW

straw See also:

• HAT

hat factories, and See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power-houses supplying See also:

• ELECTRICITY

electricity for See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting and for the numerous tramcars . There are, however, some artistic industries in and around the city, of which the most important is the Ginori-See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain works, and the Cantagalli See also:

• MAJOLICA

majolica works . There are many other smaller establishments, and the Florentine artificer seems to possess an exceptional skill in all kinds of work in which art is combined with technical ability . Another very important source of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue is the so-called " tourist See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry," which in See also:

• LATE

late years has assumed immense proportions; the city contains a large number of hotels and boarding-houses which every year are filled to overflowing with strangers from all parts of the world . (L . V.*) HISTORY Florentia was founded considerably later than See also:

• FAESULAE (mod.. Fiesole, q.v.)

Faesulae (Fiesole), which lies on the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built only in See also:

• ROMAN

Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by C . See also:

• FLAMINIUS, GAIUS

Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from See also:

• BONONIA (mod. Bologna)

Bononia to See also:

• ARRETIUM (mod. Arezzo)

Arretium (which later on formed See also:

• PART

part of the Via See also:

• CASSIA (Lat. cassia, Gr. mulct)
• CASSIA, VIA

Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river Arnus . We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to have suffered at the end of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war between See also:

• MARIUS, GAIUS (r55–86 B.c.)

Marius and See also:

• SULLA, LUCIUS CORNELIUS (138–78 B.C.)

Sulla, and in A.D . 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see See also:

• CHIANA (anc. Clanis)

CHIANA) . See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus mentions it, and See also:

• FLORUS
• FLORUS, JULIUS
• FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS

Florus describes it as one of the municipia splendidissima . A See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Florence is mentioned in A.D .

313 . A See also:

• GROUP

group of See also:

• ITALIC

Italic See also:

• CREMATION (Lat. cremare, to burn)

cremation tombs a pozzo of the See also:

• VILLANOVA

Villanova period were found under the See also:

• PAVEMENT (Lat. pavimentu;n, a floor beaten or rammed hard, from pavire, to beat)

pavement of the medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio . This took its name from the Capitolium of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza See also:

• LUNA (mod. Luni)
• LUNA, ALVARO DE (d. 1453)

Luna; the three cellae were clearly traceable . The capitals of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter, and it became clear that this See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple had supplied building materials for S . Giovanni and S . Miniato . Fragments of a fine octagonal See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found . Remains of See also:

• BATHS

baths have been found close by, while the ancient See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre has been found 'near S . Croce outside the Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates, the Decumanus being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del Corso, and the Cardo by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the See also:

• FORUM (Lat. from foris, " out of doors ")

Forum . See L . A . Milani, " Reliquie di Firenze antica," in Monumenti dei Lincei, vi .

(1896), 5 seq . (T . As.) The first event of importance recorded is the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of the city by the Goths, A.D . 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general See also:

• STILICHO, FLAVIUS (?-4o8)

Stilicho . See also:

• TOTILA (d. 552)

Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison under See also:

• JUSTIN (JUNIANUS JUSTINUS)

Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths . We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one Gudihrandus See also:

• DUX (Czech Duchcov)

Dux civitatis Florentinorum, which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of the See also:

• REGULAR

regular divisions of the Longobard See also:

• EMPIRE

empire) . See also:

• CHARLEMAGNE [CHARLES THE GREAT] (c. 742-814)
• CHARLEMAGNE, JEAN ARMAND (1753–1838)

Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation on the road from See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Italy to Rome . At the time of the agitation against See also:

• SIMONY

simony and the corruption of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy, the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of San Salvi . The simoniacal See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of See also:

• PIETAS

Pietas, Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (io68) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph, after a trial by See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, of the See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk Petrus Igneus, See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the beginnings of a popular See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience among the Florentines . See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture . The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly the residence of the See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• DUKES
• DUKES, LEOPOLD (1810-1891)

dukes), and a fine new stairway and See also:

• VESTIBULE (from Lat. vestibulum)

vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence . In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order .

In the Accademia, which is rich in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Tuscan masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special mention . Other pictures are scattered about in the churches, monasteries and private palaces . Of the monasteries, that of St See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of Fra See also:

• ANGELICO, FRA (1387–1455)

Angelico, besides See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of See also:

• SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO (1452-1498)

Savonarola, while of the private collections the only one of importance is that of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Corsini . There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the See also:

• PODESTA (Lat. potestas, power)

Podesta, itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many treasures are works of See also:

• DONATELLO (diminutive of Donato) (c. 1386-1466)

Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other sculptors, and large collections of See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel and bronze See also:

• WARE

ware . The See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

Opera del Duomo contains See also:

• MODELS

models and pieces of sculpture connected with the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral; the See also:

• ETRUSCAN

Etruscan and See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian museum, the See also:

• GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of which the origin is unknown)

gallery of tapestries, the See also:

• MICHELANGELO (MICHELAGNIOLO BUONARROTI) (1475-1564)

Michelangelo museum, the museum of natural history and other collections are all important in different ways . The See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879 . In 1861 it was 114,363; it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in Popula- tion . Florence (1865-1872), but decreased or increased very slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and increased at a greater See also:

• RATE

rate from 1881 onwards . At See also:

• PRESENT

present the rate of increase is about 22 per moo, but it is due to See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration, as the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth rate was actually below the See also:

• DEATH

death rate down to 1903', since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a decrease of the latter . Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the central government is represented by a See also:

• PREFECT (prefet)

prefect (prefetto) while See also:

• LOCAL

local government is carried on by a See also:

• MAYOR (Lat. major, greater)
• MAYOR, JOHN EYTON BICKERSTETH (1825– )

mayor (sindaco) See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce and Industry . Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March or margraviate, and the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire . Under the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• OTTO

Otto I. one Ugo (d, See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool) was See also:

• MARQUIS

marquis, and the emperor See also:

• CONRAD (d. 955)
• CONRAD, JOSEPH (1856– )
• CONRAD, or KONRAD (M. H. Ger. Kuonrdl, i.e. " keen in counsel," Lat. Conradus, It. Corrado, cf. the A.S. Ccenred)

Conrad II .

(elected in 1024) appointed See also:

• BONIFACE (Bonifacius)
• BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754)

Boniface of See also:

• CANOSSA

Canossa marquis of Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of the Roman state . Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous The countess See also:

• MATILDA (1046-1115)
• MATILDA (1102-1164)

Matilda, who ruled for See also:

• FORTY

forty years and played countess Mad/da. a prominent part in the history of Italy in that period . In the See also:

• WARS

Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on the papal (afterwards called See also:

• GUELPH

Guelph) See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side against the emperor Guelphs and the See also:

• FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons combined for action, facere, to do; from the other French derivative facon comes " fashion ")

faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and and she herself often led armies to See also:

• BATTLE

battle . It is at this 6hibe1- time that the people of Florence first began to acquire lines. See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great feudal nobles, See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in Tuscany, the See also:

• BONI (Bone)

boni homines or sapientes . As the countess was frequently absent these boni homines gave See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment without her, thus paving the way for a free commune . The citizens found themselves in opposition to the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility of the hills around the city, See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their commerce . Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the citizens began to form themselves into See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups and associations which were the germs of the arti or See also:

• GILDS, or GUILDS

gilds . After the death of Begin- Countess Matilda in 1115 the grandi or boni homines nings of continued to See also:

• RULE

rule and administer justice, but in the the name of the people—a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change hardly noticed at first, commune. but which marks the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the commune . After 1138 the boni homines began to be called consules, while the population was divided into the grandi or delle torri, i.e. the noble families who had towers, and the arti or trade and See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant gilds . At first the consules, of whom there seem to have been twelve, two for each sestiere or See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward, were chosen by the men of the towers, and assisted by a council of too boni homines, in which the aril were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few powerful families . The republic now proceeded to extend its power . In 1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the contado (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves, were still powerful .

The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage war against the See also:

• ALBERTI, DOMENICO (c. 1710–1740)
• ALBERTI, LEONE BATTISTA (1404–1472)

Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed . The emperor See also:

• LOTHAIR (825-869)
• LOTHAIR (941–986)

Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful See also:

• COUNTS

counts See also:

• GUIDI, CARLO ALESSANDRO (1650-1712)

Guidi . See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick See also:

• BARBAROSSA ("Redbeard")

Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152, made his authority See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Well of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria as See also:

• MARGRAVE (Ger. Markgraf)

margrave . .Florence and other cities were forced to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a potestas, who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of " San Miniato al Tedesco "), to represent him and exercise authority in the contado; this See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double authority of the consoli in the town and the potestas or podestd outside generated confusion . By 1176 the Florentines were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within war with the city See also: