See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

FLOWER (See also:

• LAT

Lat. flos, See also:

• FLORIS, FRANS

floris; Fr. fleur)  , a See also:

• TERM

term popularly used for the See also:

• BLOOM (from A.S. bloma, a flower)

bloom or blossom of a plant, and so by See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy for the fairest, choicest or finest See also:

• PART

part or aspect )f anything, and in various technical senses . Here we shall See also:

• DEAL

deal only with its botanical See also:

• INTEREST

interest . It is impossible to give a rigid botanical See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of the term " See also:

• FLOWER (Lat. flos, floris; Fr. fleur)
• FLOWER, SIB

flower." The flower is a characteristic feature of the highest See also:

• GROUP

group of the plant See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom—the flowering See also:

• PLANTS

plants (Phanerogams)—and is the name given to the association of See also:

• ORGANS

organs, more or less See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-like in See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, which are concerned with the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit or See also:

• SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow)

seed . In See also:

• MODERN

modern ootanical See also:

• WORKS

works the group is often known as the seed-plants (Spermatophyta) . As the seed develops from the ovule which has been fertilized by the See also:

• POLLEN, AUGUST (or, as he afterwards called himself, ADOLF) LUDWIG (1794-1855)

pollen, the essential structures for seed-production are two, viz. the pollen-See also:

• BEARER

bearer or stamen and the ovule-bearer or carpel . These are with few exceptions foliar structures, known in See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative See also:

• MORPHOLOGY, (Gr. yopdsil, form)

morphology as sporophylls, because they See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the spores, namely, the microspores or pollen-grains which are See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed in the microsporangia or pollen-sacs, and the mega-spore, which is contained in the ovule or megasporangium . In See also:

• GYMNOSPERMS

Gymnosperms (q.v.), which represent the more See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• SIMPLE

simple or branched, arises, while the leaves which arise on the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis between the bract and the See also:

• OUTER

outer envelope of the flower are bracteoles or bractlets . Bracts sometimes do not differ from the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary leaves, as in See also:

• VERONICA, ST

Veronica hederifolia, Vinca, Anagallis and Ajuga . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general as regards their form and See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance they differ from ordinary leaves, the difference being greater in the upper than in the See also:

• LOWER

lower branches of an inflorescence . They are distinguished by their position at the See also:

• BASE

base of the flower or flower-stalk . Their arrangement is similar to that of the leaves . When the flower is sessile the bracts are often applied closely to the calyx, and may thus be confounded with it, as in the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order See also:

• MALVACEAE

Malvaceae and See also:

• SPECIES

species of Dianthus and See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter See also:

• ACONITE (Aconitum)

aconite (Eranthis), where they have received the name of epicalyx or calyculus .

In some Rosaceous plants an epicalyx is See also:

• PRESENT

present, due to the formation of stipulary structures by the sepals . In many cases bracts See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act as protective organs, within or beneath which the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers are concealed in their earliest See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of growth . When bracts become coloured, as in Amherstia nobilis, See also:

• EUPHORBIA

Euphorbia splendens, Erica elegans and See also:

• SALVIA

Salvia splendens, they may be mistaken for parts of the corolla . They are sometimes See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere scales or threads, and at other times are undeveloped, giving rise to the ebracteate inflorescence of See also:

• CRUCIFERAE

Cruciferae and some See also:

• BORAGINACEAE

Boraginaceae . Sometimes they are empty, no flower-buds being produced in their axil . A See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of empty coloured bracts terminates the inflorescence of Salvia Horminum . The smaller bracts or bracteoles, which occur among the subdivisions of a branching inflorescence, often produce no, flower-buds, and thus anomalies occur in the floral arrangements . Bracts are occasion-ally persistent, remaining See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long attached to the base of the peduncles, but more usually they are See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous, falling off earlyby an See also:

• ARTICULATION (from Lat. articulare, to divide into joints)

articulation . In some instances they form part of the fruit, becoming incorporated with other organs . Thus, the cones of firs and the stroboli of the See also:

• HOP (Ger. Hopfen, Fr. houblon)

hop are composed of a series of spirally arranged bracts covering fertile flowers; and the scales on the fruit of th See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-See also:

• APPLE (a common Teut. word, A.S. aepl, aeppel, O.H.G. aphul, aphal, apfal, mod. Ger. Apfel)

apple are of the same nature . At the base of the general umbel in umbelliferous plants a whorl of bracts often exists, called a general involucre, and at the base of the smaller umbels or umbellules there is a similar leafy whorl called an involucel or partial involucre . In some instances, as in See also:

• FOOL (O. Fr. fol, modern fou, foolish, from a Late Latin use of follis, bellows, a ball filled with air, for a stupid person, a jester, a wind-bag)

fool's-See also:

• PARSLEY

parsley, there is no general involucre, but simply an involucel; while in other cases, as in See also:

• FENNEL

fennel or See also:

• DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens)

dill (fig .

Is), neither involucre nor involucel is developed . In See also:

• COMPOSITAE

Compositae the name involucre is applied to the bracts surrounding the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of flowers (fig . 2, i), as in See also:

• MARIGOLD

marigold, See also:

• DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale)

dandelion, See also:

• DAISY (A.S. daeges cage, day's eye)

daisy, See also:

• ARTICHOKE

artichoke . This involucre is frequently composed of several rows of leaflets, which are either of the same or of different forms and lengths, and often See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie over each other in an imbricated manner . The leaves of the involucre are spiny in thistles and in teazel (Dipsacus), and hooked in burdock . Such whorled or verticillate bracts generally remain See also:

• SEPARATE

separate (polyphyllous), but may be See also:

• UNITED

united by cohesion (gamopkyllous), as in many species of Bupleurum and in Lavatera . In Compositae besides the involucre there are frequently chaffy and setose bracts at the base of each flower, and in Dipsacaceae a membranous See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube surrounds each flower . These structures are-of the nature of an epicalyx . In the See also:

• ACORN

acorn the cupule or See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup (fig . 3) is formed by a growing upwards of the flower-stalk immediately beneath the flower, upon which scaly or spiny protuberances appear; it is of the nature of bracts . Bracts also compose the husky covering of the See also:

• HAZEL (0. Eng. hresell; cf. Ger. Hasel, Swed. and Dan. Kassel, &c.,; Fr. noiselier, coudrier)

hazel-See also:

• NUT
• NUT (0. Eng. knutu, cf. Dutch noot, Ger. Nuss; allied with Gael. cno; it is not of the same form as Lat. nux)

nut . - When bracts become united, and overlie each other in several rows, it often happens that the outer ones do not produce flowers, that is, are empty or sterile .

In the artichoke the outer imbricated scales or bracts are in this See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, and it is from the membranous See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white scales or bracts (paleae) forming the choke attached to the edible receptacle that the flowers are produced . The sterile bracts of the daisy occasionally produce capitula, and give rise to the See also:

• HEN

hen-and-chickens daisy . In See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of developing flower-buds, bracts may, in certain circumstances, as in proliferous or viviparous plants, produce leaf-buds . A sheathing bract enclosing one or several flowers is called a spathe . It is See also:

• COMMON

common among Monocotyledons, as See also:

• NARCISSUS

Narcissus (fig . 4), See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-flake, Arum and palms . In some palms it is 20 ft. long, and encloses 200,000 flowers . It is often associated with that form of inflorescence termed the spadix, and may be coloured, as in Anthurium, or white, as in arum See also:

• LILY

lily (See also:

• RICHARDIA

Richardia aethiopica) . When the spadix is See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound or branching, as in palms, there are smaller spathes, surrounding separate parts of the inflorescence . The spathe protects the flowers in their young See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and often falls off after they are developed, or hangs down type of seed-plants, the micro- or macro-sporophylls are generally associated, often in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, in separate cones, to which the term " flower " has been applied . But there is considerable difference of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion as to the relation between these cones and the more definite and elaborate structure known as the flower in the higher group of seed-plants—the See also:

• ANGIOSPERMS

Angiosperms (q.v.) —and it is to this more definite structure that we generally refer in using the term " flower." Flowers are produced from flower-buds, just as leaf-shoots arise from leaf-buds . These two kinds of buds have a resemblance to each other as regards the arrangement and the development of their parts; and it sometimes happens, from injury and other causes, that the part of the axis which, in ordinary cases, would produce a leaf-bud, gives origin to a flower-bud .

A flower-bud has not in ordinary circumstances any See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension by the continuous development of its See also:

• APEX

apex . In this respect it differs from a leaf-bud . In some cases, however, of monstrosity, especially seen in the See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose (fig . I), the central part is See also:

• PRO

pro-longed, and bears leaves or flowers . In such cases the flowers, so far as their functional capabilities are concerned, are usually abortive . This phenomenon is known as proliferation of the floral axis . Flower-buds, like leaf-buds, are produced in the axil of leaves, which are called bracts . The term bract is properly applied to the leaf from which the See also:

• PRIMARY

primary erects. floral axis, whether p, Petals multiplied at the expense of the stamens, which are reduced in number . Coloured leaves representing abortive carpels . a, Axis prolonged, bearing an imperfect flower at its apex . c, From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav See also:

• FISCHER
• FISCHER, EMIL (1852– )
• FISCHER, ERNST KUNO BERTHOLD (1824–1907)

Fischer . in a withered form, as in some palms, Typha and Pothos .

In See also:

• GRASSES

grasses the outer scales or glumes of the spikelets are sterile bracts (fig . 5, gl); and in See also:

• CYPERACEAE

Cyperaceae bracts enclose the organs of See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction . Bracts are frequently changed into See also:

• COMPLETE

complete leaves . This See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change is called phyllody of bracts, and is seen in specie's of Plantago, especially in the variety of Plantago See also:

• MEDIA

media, called the rose-See also:

• PLANTAIN (Lat. plantago)

plantain in gardens, where the bracts become leafy and form a rosette See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the flowering axis . Similar changes occur in Plantago See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major, P. lanceolata, Ajuga reptans, dandelion, daisy, See also:

• DAHLIA

dahlia and in umbelliferous plants . The See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of bracts into stamens (staminody of bracts) has been observed in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Abies excelsa . A lengthening of the axis of the See also:

• FEMALE

female strobilus of Coniferae is not of infrequent occurrence in See also:

• CRYPTOMERIA, or JAPANESE CEDAR

Cryptomeria japonica, See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch (Larix europaea), &c., and this is usually associated with a leaf-like condition of the bracts, and sometimes even with the development of leaf-bearing shoots in place of the scales . The arrangement of the flowers on the axis, or the ramification of the floral axis, is called the inflorescence . The primary axis of the inflorescence is some-times called the rachis; its branches, whether terminal or lateral, which form the stalks supporting flowers or clusters of flowers, are peduncles, and if small branches are given off by it, they are called pedicels . A flower having a stalk is called pedunculate or pedicel- See also:

• LATE

late; one having no stalk is sessile . In describing a branching inflorescence, it is common to speak of the rachis as the primary floral axis, its branches as the secondary floral axes, their divisions as the See also:

• TERTIARY

tertiary floral axes, and so on; thus avoiding any confusion that might arise from the use of the terms rachis, peduncle and pedicel . The peduncle is simple, bearing a single flower, as in See also:

• PRIMROSE

primrose; or branched, as in See also:

• LONDON

London-See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride .

It is sometimes succulent, as in the cashew, in which it forms the large coloured expansion sup- porting the nut; See also:

• SPIRAL

spiral, as in See also:

• CYCLAMEN

Cyclamen and Vallisneria; or spiny, as in Alyssum spinosum . When the peduncle proceeds from See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical leaves, that is, from an axis which is so shortened as to bring the leaves See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close together in the form of a cluster, as in the primrose, See also:

• AURICULA (Primula auricula)

auricula or See also:

• HYACINTH (Gr. ualavOor)
• HYACINTH, or JACINTH

hyacinth, it is termed a scape . The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened, See also:

• CONVEX

convex or See also:

• CONCAVE

concave to:m, and bearing numerous flowers, as in the arti- choke, daisy and fig (fig . 6) . The floral axis sometimes appears as if formed by several peduncles united together, constituting a fasciated axis, as in the cocks-See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb, in which the flowers form a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest at the apex of the flattened peduncles . Adhesions occasionally take place between the peduncle and the bracts or leaves of the plant, as in the See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime-See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree (fig . 7) . The' See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of the peduncles to the See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem accounts for the extraaxillary position of flowers, as in many See also:

• SOLANACEAE

Solanaceae . When this See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union extends for a considerable length along the stem, several leaves may be interposed between the part where the peduncle becomes See also:

• FREE

free and the leaf whence it originated, and it may be difficult to trace the connexion . The peduncle occasion-ally becomes abortive, and in place of bearing a flower, is trans-formed into a tendril; at other times it is hollowed at the apex, so as apparently to form the lower part of the outer whorl of floral leaves as in Eschscholtzia . The termination of the peduncle, or the part on which the whorls of the flower are arranged, is called the thalamus, See also:

• TORUS

torus or receptacle . There are two distinct types of inflorescence—one in which the flowers arise as lateral shoots from a primary axis, which goes on elongating, and the lateral shoots never exceed in their development the length of the primary axis beyond their point of origin .

The flowers are thus always axillary . Exceptions, such as in cruciferous plants, are due to the non-appearance of the bracts . In the other type the primary axis terminates in a single flower, but lateral axes are given• off from the axils of the bracts, which again repeat the primary axis; the development of each lateral axis is stronger than that of the primary (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch axis beyond its point of origin . The der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) flowers produced in this inflorescence striata. d, bract. of inflorescence is indeterminate, indefinite or axillory . Here the axis is either elongated, 6.-Peduncle of Fig Carica), ending in a receptacle, enclosing numerous male and female flowers . Fm . (Ficus hollow (From Vines' Students' See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

Text-See also:

• BOOK

Book of See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

Botany, by per-See also:

• MISSION

mission of See also:

• SWAN (A. S. swan and swan, Icel. svanr, Du. zwaart, Ger. Schwan)
• SWAN, J
• SWAN, JOHN MACALLAN (1847-1910)
• SWAN, SIR JOSEPH WILSON (1828– )

Swan Sonnenschein & Co,) ;x a a, See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

Branch . b, Petiole with axillary bud . Attached to the peduncle is the bract (h) . k, Calyx . c, Corolla . s, Stamens .

f, Ovary . kn, Flower-bud . Inflorescence . producing flower-buds as it grows, the lower expanding first (fig . 8), or it is shortened and depressed, and the outer flowers expand first (fig . 9) . The expansion of the flowers is thus centripetal, that is, from base to apex, or from circumference to centre . The second See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of inflorescence is determinate, definite or terminal . In this the axis is either elongated and ends in a solitary flower, which thus terminates the axis, and if other flowers are produced, they belong to secondary axes farther from the centre; or the axis is shortened and See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat- , producing a number of separate floral axes, the central one expanding first, while the others are developed in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession farther from the centre . The expansion of the flowers is in this case centrifugal, that is, from apex to base, or from centre to circumference . It is illustrated in fig. ro, See also:

• RANUNCULUS

Ranunculus bulbosus ; a' is the primary axis swollen at the base in a bulb-like manner b, and with roots proceeding from it . From the leaves which are radical proceeds the axis ending in a solitary terminal flower f' .

About the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of this axis there is a leaf or bract, from which a secondary floral axis a" is produced, ending in a single flower f", less advanced than the flower f . This secondary axis bears a leaf also, from which a tertiary floral axis a"' is produced, bearing an unexpanded solitary flower f' . From this tertiary axis a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth is in progress of formation . Here f' is the termination of the primary axis, and this flower expands first, while the other flowers are developed centrifugally on separate axes . A third series of inflorescences, termed mixed, may be recognized . In them the primary axis has an arrangement belonging to the opposite type from that of the branches, or See also:

• VICE

vice versa . According to the mode and degree of development of the lateral shoots and also of the bracts, various forms of both inflorescences result . Amongst indefinite forms the simplest occurs when a lateral shoot produced in the axil of a large single foliage leaf of the plant ends in a single flower, the axis of the plant elongating beyond, as in Veronica hederifolia, Vinca See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor and Lysimachia nemorum . The flower in this case is solitary, and the ordinary leaves become bracts by producing flower-buds in place of leaf-buds; their number, like that of the leaves of this See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main axis, is indefinite, varying with the vigour of the plant . Usually, however, the floral axis, arising from a more or less altered leaf or bract, instead of ending in a solitary flower, is prolonged, and bears numerous bracteoles, from which smaller peduncles are produced, and those again in their turn may be branched in a similar way . Thus the flowers are arranged in See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups, and frequently very complicated forms of inflorescence result . When the primary peduncle or floral axis, as in fig .

8, is elongated, and gives off pedicels, ending in single flowers, a raceme is produced, as in See also:

• CURRANT

currant, hyacinth and See also:

• BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris)

barberry . If the secondary floral axes give rise to tertiary ones, the raceme is branching, and forms a panicle, as in See also:

• YUCCA

Yucca See also:

• GLORIOSA

gloriosa . If in a raceme the lower flower-stalks are developed more strongly than the upper, and thus all the flowers are nearly on a level, a corymb is formed,which maybe simple, as in fig. r r, where the primary axis a' gives off secondary axes a", a", which end in single flowers; or branching, where the secondary axes again subdivide . If the pedicels are very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short or wanting, so that the flowers are sessile, a spike is produced, as in Plantago and vervain (See also:

• VERBENA

Verbena offieinalis) (fig . 12) . If the spike bears unisexual flowers, as in See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow or hazel (fig . 13), it is an amentum or catkin, hence such trees are called amentiferous; atother times it becomes succulent, bearing numerous flowers, surrounded by a sheathing bract or spathe, and then it constitutes a spadix, which may be simple, as in Arum maculatum (fig . 14), or branching as in palms . A spike bearing female flowers only, and covered with scales, is a strobilus, as in the hop . In grasses there are usually numerous sessile flowers arranged in small spikes, called locustae or spikelets, which are either set closely along a central axis, or produced on secondary axes formed by the branching of the central one; to the latter form the term panicle is applied . If the primary axis, in place of being elongated, is contracted, it gives rise to other forms of indefinite inflorescence . When the axis is so shortened that the secondary axes arise from a common point, and spread out as radii of nearly equal length, each ending in a single flower or dividing again in a similar radiating manner, (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) an umbel is produced, as in fig .

15 . From the primary floral axis a the secondary axes come off in a radiating or See also:

• UMBRELLA

umbrella-like manner, and end in small umbels b, which are called partial umbels or umbellules . This inflorescence is seen in See also:

• HEMLOCK (in O. Eng. hemlic or hymlice; no cognate is found in any other language, and the origin is unknown)

hemlock and other allied plants, which are hence called umbelliferous . If there are numerous flowers on a flattened, convex or slightly concave receptacle, having either very short pedicels or none, a capitulum (head) is formed, as in dandelion, daisy and other composite plants (fig . 2), also in scabious (fig . 9) and teazel . In the See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• BUTTON (Fr. bouton, O. Fr. boton, apparently from the same root as bouter, to push)

button-See also:

• BUSH

bush the heads are globular, in some species of teazel elliptical, while in scabious and in composite plants, as See also:

• SUNFLOWER

sunflower, dandelion, See also:

• THISTLE

thistle, See also:

• CENTAURY (Erythraea Centaurium, natural order Gentianaceae)

centaury and marigold, they are somewhat hemispherical, with a flattened, slightly hollowed, or convex disk . If the margins of such a receptacle be developed upwards, the centre not developing, a concave receptacle is formed, which may partially or completely enclose a number of flowers that are generally unisexual . This gives rise to the peculiar inflorescence of Dorstenia, or to that of the fig (fig . 6), where the flowers are placed on the inner See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the hollow receptacle, and are provided with bracteoles . This in-florescence has been called a hypanthodium . Lastly, we have what are called compound indefinite inflorescences .

In these forms the lateral shoots, developed centripetally upon the primary axis, bear numerous bracteoles, from which floral shoots arise which may have a centripetal arrangement similar to that on the See also:

• MOTHER

mother shoot, or it may be different . Thus we may have a group of racemes, arranged in a racemose manner on a common axis, forming a raceme of racemes or compound raceme, as in Astilbe . In the same way we may have compound umbels, as in hemlock and most See also:

• UMBELLIFERAE

Umbelliferae (fig . 15), a compound spike, as in See also:

• RYE

rye-grass, a compound spadix, as in some palms, and a compound capitulum, as in the hen-and-chickens daisy . Again, there may be a raceme of capitula, that is, a group of capitula disposed in a racemose manner, as in Petasites, a raceme of umbels, as in See also:

• IVY (A.S. ifig, Ger. Epheu, perhaps connected with apium, anent)

ivy, and so on, all the forms of inflorescence being indefinite in disposition . In Eryngium the shortening of the pedicels changes an umbel into a capitulum . The simplest form of the definite type of the inflorescence is seen in See also:

• ANEMONE

Anemone nemorosa and in gentianella (Gentiana acaulis), where the axis terminates in a single flower, no other flowers being produced upon the plant . This is a solitary terminal inflorescence . If other flowers were produced, they would arise as lateral shoots from the bracts below the first-formed flower . The general name of cyme is applied to the arrangement of a group of flowers in a definite inflorescence . A cymose inflorescence is an inflorescence where the primary floral axis before terminating in a flower gives off one or more lateral unifloral axes which repeat the See also:

• PROCESS

process—the development being only limited by the vigour of the plant . The floral axes are thus centrifugally developed .

The cyme, according to its development, has been characterized as biparous or uniparous . In fig . 16 the biparous cyme is represented in the flowering branch of Cerastium . Here the primary axis t ends in a flower, which has passed into the state of fruit . At its base two leaves are produced, in each of which arise secondary axes t' t', ending in single flowers, and at the base of these axes a pair of opposite leaves is produced, giving rise to tertiary axes t" t", ending in single flowers, and so on . The term dichasium has also been applied to this form of cyme . In the natural order Carophyllaceae (See also:

• PINK

pink See also:

• FAMILY

family) the dichasial form of inflorescence is very general . In some members of the order, as Dianthus barbatus, D. carthusianorum, &c., in which the peduncles are 'short, and the flowers closely approximated, with a centrifugal expansion, the inflorescence has the form of a contracted dichasium, and receives the name of fascicle . When the axes become very much shortened, the arrangement is more complicated in appearance, and the nature of the inflorescence can only be recognized by the order of opening of the flowers . In Labiate plants, as the dead-See also:

• NETTLE (0. Eng. netele, cf. Ger. Nessel)

nettle (Lamium), the flowers are produced in the axil of each of the foliage leaves of the plant, and they appear as if arranged in a simple whorl of flowers . But on examination it is found that there is a central flower expanding first, and from its axis two secondary axes See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring bearing solitary flowers; the expansion is thus centrifugal . The inflorescence is therefore a contracted dichasium, the flowers being sessile, or nearly so, and the clusters are called verticillasters (fig .

17) . Sometimes, especially towards the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of a dichasium, owing to the exhaustion of the growing power of the plant, only one of the bracts gives origin to a new axis, the otherremaining empty; thus the inflorescence becomes unilateral, and further development is arrested . In addition to the dichasial form there are others where more than two lateral axes are produced from the primary floral axis, each of which in turn (From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.) t-t"", successive axes . (After Duchartre.) produces numerous axes . To this form the terms trichasial and polychasial cyme have been applied; but these are now usually designated cymose umbels . They are well seen in some species of Euphorbia . Another term, anthela, has been used to distinguish such forms as occur in several species of Luzula and /uncus, where numerous lateral axes arising from the primary axis grow very strongly and develop in an irregular manner . In the uniparous cyme a number of floral axes are successively developed one from the other, but the axis of each successive See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, instead of producing a pair of bracts, produces only one . The basal portion of the consecutive axes may become much thickened and arranged more or less in a straight See also:

• LINE

line, and thus collectively form an apparent or false axis or sympodium, and the inflorescence thus simulates a raceme . In the true raceme, however, we find only a single axis, producing in succession a series of bracts, from which the floral peduncles arise as lateral shoots, and thus each flower is on the same See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the floral axis as the bract in the axil of which it is developed; but in the uniparous cyme the flower of each of these axes, the basal portions of which unite to form the false axis, is situated on the opposite side of the axis to the bract from which it apparently arises (fig . 18) . The bract is not, however, the one from which the axis terminating in the flower arises, but is a bract produced upon it, and gives origin in its axil to a new axis, the basal portion of which, constituting the next part of the false axis, occupies the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle between this bract and its See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent axis--the bract from which the axis really does arise being situated lower down upon the same side of the axis with itself .

The uniparous cyme presents two forms, the scorpioid or cicinal and the helicoid or bostrychoid . In the scorpioid cyme the flowers are arranged alternately in a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• ROW, JOHN (c. 1525—1580)

row along one side of the false axis (fig . 1q), the bracts when developed forming a second double row on the opposite side; the whole inflorescence usually curves on itself like a See also:

• SCORPION (Lat. Scorpio)

scorpion's tail, hence its name . In fig . 20 is shown a diagrammatic See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of this arrangement . The false axis, a b c d, is formed by successive generations of unifloral axes, the flowers being arranged along one side alternately and in a double row; had the bracts been developed they would have formed a similar double row on the opposite side of the false axis; the wholeinflorescence is represented as curved on itself . The inflorescence in the family Boraginaceae are usually regarded as true scorpioid cymes . In the helicoid cyme there is also a false axis formed by the basal portion of the separate axes, but the flowers are not placed in a double row, but in a single row, and form a spiral or See also:

• HELIX (Gr. € tE, a spiral or twist)

helix round the false axis . In Alstroemeria, as represented in fig . 18, the axis al ends in a flower (cut off in the figure) and bears a leaf . From the axil of this leaf, that is, between it and the primary axis al arises a secondary axis See also:

• A2(z)

a2, ending in a flower See also:

• F2(X2+Y2)

f2, and producing a leaf about the middle . From the axil of this leaf a tertiary floral axis a3, ending in a flower f3, takes origin .

In this case the axes are not arranged in two rows along one side of the false axis, but are placed at See also:

• REGULAR

regular intervals, so as to form an elongated spiral round it . Compound definite inflorescences are by no means common, but in Streptocarpus See also:

• POLYANTHUS

polyanthus and in several calceolarias we probably have examples . Here there are scorpioid cymes of pairs of flowers, each pair consisting of an older and a younger flower . Forms of inflorescence occur, in which both the definite and indefinite types are represented—mixed inflorescences . Thus in Composite plants,such as hawkweeds(Hieracia) and ragworts (Senecio, fig . 21), the heads of flowers, =reds . taken as a whole, are developed centrifugally, the cence. terminal head first, while the florets, or small flowers on the receptacle, open centripetally, those at the circumference first . So also in See also:

• LABIATAE (i.e. " lipped," Lat. labium, lip)

Labiatae, such as dead-nettle (Lamium), the different whorls of inflorescence are developed centripetally, while the florets of the verticillaster are centrifugal . This mixed See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character presents difficulties in such cases as Labiatae, where the leaves, in place of retaining their ordinary form, become bracts, and thus might See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the supposition of the whole series of flowers being one inflorescence . In such cases the cymes are described as spiked, racemose, or panicled, according to circumstances . In Saxifraga umbrosa (London-pride) and in the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut we meet with a raceme of scorpioid cymes; in See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-pink, a capitulum of contracted scorpioid cymes (often called a glomerulus); in See also:

• LAURUSTINUS

laurustinus, a compound umbel of dichasial cymes; a scorpioid cyme of capitula in Vernonia scorpioides . The so-called catkins of the See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch are, in reality, spikes of contracted dichasial cymes .

In the See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell-flower (See also:

• CAMPANULA (Bell-flower)

Campanula) there is a racemose uniparous cyme . In the See also:

• PRIVET

privet (Ligustrum vulgare) there are numerous racemes of dichasia arranged in a racemose manner along an axis; the whole inflorescence thus has an appearance not unlike a bunch of grapes, and has been called a See also:

• THYRSUS (the latinized form of Gr. Bupaos, a stem or stalk)

thyrsus .