FORESTS AND FORESTRY  . Although most See also:

• PEOPLE

people know what a See also:

• FOREST

forest (See also:

• LAT

Lat. foris, " out of doors ") is, a See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of it which suits all cases is by no means easy to give . Manwood, in his See also:

• TREATISE

treatise of the See also:

• LAWES, HENRY (1595-1662)
• LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, BART

Lawes of the Forest (1598), defines a forest as "a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful pastures, privileged for See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild beasts and fowls of forest, See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

chase and See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

warren, to See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest and abide in, in the safe See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, for his princely delight and See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure:" This See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive definition has, in See also:

• MODERN

modern times, when the economic aspect of forests came more into the foreground, given See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to others, so that forest may, in a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general way, now be described as " an See also:

• AREA

area which is for the most See also:

• PART

part set aside for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of See also:

• TIMBER

timber and other forest produce, or which is expected to exercise certain See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic effects, or to protect the locality against injurious influences." As far. as conclusions can now be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn, it is probable that the greater part of the dry See also:

• LAND

land of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth was, at some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, covered with forest, which consisted of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped according to See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, See also:

• SOIL

soil and configuration of the several localities . When the old trees reached their limit 2 Docum`nts Illustrative of See also:

• ENGLISH

English Historyals . 338 . of See also:

• LIFE

life, they disappeared, and younger trees took their place . The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of the forest were favourable, and the result was vigorous production by the creative See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of soil and climate . Then came See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, and by degrees interfered, until in most countries of the earth the area under forest has been considerably reduced . The first decided interference was probably due to the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of domestic animals; men burnt the forest to obtain pasture for their flocks . Subsequently similar See also:

• MEASURES

measures on an ever-increasing See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale were employed to prepare the land for agricultural purposes . More recently enormous areas of forests were destroyed by reckless cutting and subsequent firing in the extraction of timber for economic purposes . It will readily be understood that the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the now remaining forests must differ enormously (see See also:

• PLANTS

PLANTS: Distribution) .

Large portions of the earth are still covered with dense masses of tall trees, while others contain See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low scrub or grass land, or are See also:

• DESERT

desert . As a general See also:

• RULE

rule, natural forests consist of a number of different See also:

• SPECIES

species intermixed; but in some cases certain species, called gregarious, have succeeded in obtaining the upper See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, thus forming more or less pure forests of one species only . The number of species differs very much . In many tropical forests hundreds of species may be found on a comparatively small area, in other cases the number is limited . See also:

• BURMA

Burma has several thousand species of trees and shrubs, See also:

• SIND

Sind has only ten species of trees . Central See also:

• EUROPE

Europe has about See also:

• FORTY

forty species, and the greater part of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden and See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway contains forests consisting of about See also:

• HALF

half a dozen species . See also:

• ELEVATION

Elevation above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea acts similarly to rising See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, but the effect is much more rapidly produced . Generally speaking, it may be said that the Tropics and adjoining parts of the earth, wherever the climate is not modified by considerable elevation, contain broad-leaved species, palms, bamboos, &c . Here most of the best and hardest timbers are found, such as See also:

• TEAK

teak, See also:

• MAHOGANY

mahogany and See also:

• EBONY (Gr. E(3evos)

ebony . The northern countries are See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in conifers . Taking a See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section from Central See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa to See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Europe, it will be found that See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and north of the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator there is a large See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of dense hardwood forest; then comes the See also:

• SAHARA

Sahara, then the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the Mediterranean with forests of See also:

• CORK
• CORK (perhaps through Sp. corcha from Lat. cortex, bark, but possibly connected with quercus, oak)
• CORK, RICHARD BOYLE

cork See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak; then See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy with oak, See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive, See also:

• CHESTNUT (nux Castanea)

chestnut, gradually giving place to ash, sycamore, See also:

• BEECH

beech, See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch and certain species of See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine; in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland and See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany See also:

• SILVER

silver See also:

• FIR

fir and spruce gain ground . Silver fir disappears in central Germany, and the countries around the Baltic contain forests consisting chiefly of Scotch pine, spruce and birch, to which, in See also:

• SIBERIA

Siberia, See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch must be added, while the See also:

• LOWER

lower parts of the ground are stocked with See also:

• HORNBEAM (Carpinus betulus)

hornbeam, See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow, See also:

• ALDER

alder and See also:

• POPLAR
• POPLAR (Lat. Populus)

poplar .

In North See also:

• AMERICA

America the distribution is as follows: Tropical vegetation is found in south See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida, while in north Florida it changes into a subtropical vegetation consisting of See also:

• EVERGREEN

evergreen broad-leaved species with pines on sandy soils . On going north in the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic region, the forest becomes temperate, containing See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous broad-leaved trees and pines, until See also:

• CANADA

Canada is reached, where larches, spruces and firs occupy the ground . Around the See also:

• GREAT

great lakes on sandy soils the broad-leaved forest gives way to pines . On proceeding See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west from the Atlantic region the forest changes into a shrubby vegetation, and this into the prairies . Farther west, towards the Pacific coast, extensive forests are found consisting, according to latitude and elevation above the sea, of pines, larches, fir, Thujas and Tsugas . In See also:

• JAPAN

Japan a tropical vegetation is found in the south, comprising palms, See also:

• FIGS

figs, ebony, See also:

• MANGROVE

mangrove and others . This is followed on proceeding north by subtropical forests containing evergreen oaks, Podocar pus, See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree-ferns, and, at higher elevations, See also:

• CRYPTOMERIA, or JAPANESE CEDAR

Cryptomeria and Chamaecyparis . Then follow deciduous broad-leaved forests, and finally firs, spruces and larches . In See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India the character of the forests is governed chiefly by rainfall and elevation . Where the former is heavy evergreen forests of Guttiferae, Dipterocarpeae, See also:

• LEGUMINOSAE

Leguminosae, Euphorbias, figs, palms, ferns, bamboos and india-See also:

• RUBBER, INDIARUBBER

rubber trees are found . Under a less copious rainfall deciduous forests appear, containing teak and sal (Shored robusta) and a great variety of other valuable trees . Under a still .smaller rainfall the vegetation. becomes. sparse,containing acacias, Dalbergia sissoo and Tamarix .

Where the rainfall is very See also:

• LIGHT

light or nil, desert appears . In the Himalayas, subtropical to See also:

• ARCTIC (Gr. "ApKroc, the Bear, the northern constellation of Ursa Major)

arctic conditions are found, the forests containing, according to elevation, pines, firs, deodars, oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, laurels, rhododendrons and bamboos . See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, again, has its own particular See also:

• FLORA

flora of eucalypts, of which some two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred species have been distinguished, as well as wattles . Some of the eucalypts attain an enormous height . Utility of Forests.—In the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of man and of nature forests are of See also:

• DIRECT

direct and indirect value, the former chiefly through the produce which they yield, and the latter through the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence which they exercise upon climate, the regulation of moisture, the stability of the soil, the healthiness and beauty of a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and allied subjects . The indirect utility will be dealt with first . A piece of land See also:

• BARE

bare of vegetation is, throughout the See also:

• YEAR

year, exposed to the full effect of See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun and See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air currents, and the climatic conditions which are produced by these agencies . If, on the other hand, a piece of land is covered with a growth of plants, and especially with a dense See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of forest vegetation; it enjoys the benefit of certain agencies which modify the effect of sun and See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind on the soil and the adjoining layers of air . These modifying agencies are as follows: (') The crowns of the trees intercept the rays of the sun and the falling See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain; they obstruct the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of air currents, and reduce See also:

• RADIATION, THEORY OF

radiation at See also:

• NIGHT

night . (2) The leaves, See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers and fruits, augmented by certain plants which grow in the shade of the trees, See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a layer of See also:

• MOULD

mould, or humus, which protects the soil against rapid changes of temperature, and greatly influences the movement of See also:

• WATER

water in it . (3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all directions,' and bind it together . The effects of these agencies have been observed from See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times, and widely differing views have been taken of them .

Of See also:

• LATE

late years, however, more careful observations have been made at so-called parallel stations, that is to say, one station in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of a forest, and another outside at some distance from its edge, but otherwise exposed to the same general conditions . In this way, the following results have been obtained: (I) Forests reduce the temperature of the air and soil to a moderate extent, and render the climate more equable . (2) They increase the relative humidity of the air, and reduce evaporation . (3) They tend to increase the precipitation of moisture . As regards the actual rainfall, their effect in low lands is nil or very small; in hilly countries it is probably greater, but definite results have not yet been obtained owing to the difficulty of separating the effect of forests from that of other factors . (4) They help to regulate the water See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply, produce a more sustained feeding of springs, tend to reduce violent floods, and render the flow of water in See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers more continuous . (5) They assist in preventing denudation, erosion, landslips; avalanches, the silting up of rivers and low lands and the formation of See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand See also:

• DUNES

dunes . (6) They reduce the velocity of air-currents, protect adjoining See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields against See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold or dry winds, and afford shelter to See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle, See also:

• GAME

game and useful birds . (q) They may, under certain conditions, improve the healthiness of a country, and help in its See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence . (8) They increase the beauty of a country, and produce a healthy aesthetic influence upon the people . The direct utility of forests is chiefly due to their produce, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital which they represent, and the See also:

• WORK

work which they See also:

• PRO

pro-vide . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal produce of forests consists of timber and firewood .

Both are necessaries for the daily life of the people . Apart from a limited number of broad-leaved species, the conifers have become the most'important timber trees in the economy of man . They are found in greatest quantities in the countries around the Baltic and in North America . In modern times See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and other materials have, to a considerable extent, replaced timber, while See also:

• COAL

coal, See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite, and See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat compete with firewood; nevertheless See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood is still indispensable, and likely to remain so . This is See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne out by the See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics of the most civilized nations . Whereas the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, during the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period 88o– See also:

• ODD (in middle English odde, from old Norwegian oddi, an angle of a triangle; the old Norwegian oddamann is used of the third man who gives a casting vote in a dispute)

odd. increased by about 20%, the imports of timber, during the same period, increased by 45%; in other words; every See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of population in 'goo used more timber than twenty years earlier . Germany produced in 188o about as much timber as she required; in 1899 she imported 4,600,000 tons, valued at £14,000,000, and her imports are rapidly increasing, although the yield capacity of her own forests is much higher now than it was formerly . Wood is now used for many purposes which formerly were not thought of . The manufacture of the wood pulp annually imported into Britain consumes at least 2,000,000 tons of timber . - A fabric closely resembling See also:

• SILK

silk is now made of spruce wood . The variety of other, or See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor, produce yielded by forests is very great, and much of it is essential for the well-being of the people and for various See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries . The yield of See also:

• FODDER

fodder is of the utmost importance in countries subject to periodic droughts; in many places See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field crops could not be grown successfully without the See also:

• LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loof, Ger. Laub, Swed. lof, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. Ma-eta, to peel, strip)

leaf-mould and brushwood taken from the forests .

As regards industries, See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention need only be drawn to such articles as commercial fibre, tanning materials, dye-stuffs, See also:

• LAC

lac, See also:

• TURPENTINE (in M. Eng. turbentine, adapted through the O. Fr. turbentine or terebentine from Lat. terebinthina, sc. resina, resin of the terebinth, Gr. eepiOtvOos or eippavOos)

turpentine, See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin, rubber, See also:

• GUTTA (Latin for " drop ")

gutta-percha, &c . Great Britain and Ireland alone import every year such materials to the value of £12,000,000, half of this being represented by rubber . The capital employed in forests consists chiefly of the value of the soil and growing stock of timber . The latter is, ordinarily, of much greater value than the former wherever a sustained See also:

• ANNUAL

annual yield of timber is expected from a forest . In the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of a Scotch pine forest, for instance, the value of the growing stock is, under the above-mentioned See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, from three to five times that of the soil . The See also:

• RATE

rate of See also:

• INTEREST

interest yielded by capital invested in forests differs, of course, considerably according to circumstances, but on the whole it may, under proper management, be placed equal to that yielded by agricultural land; it is lower than the agricultural rate on the better classes of land, but higher on the inferior classes . Hence the latter are specially indicated for the forest See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, and the former for the production of agricultural crops . Forests require labour in a great variety of ways, such as (1) general See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, formation, tending and harvesting; (2) transport of produce; and (3) industries which depend on forests for their See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime material . The labour indicated under the first head differs considerably according to circumstances, but its amount is smaller than that required if the land is used for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . Hence forests provide additional labour only if they are established on surplus lands . Owing to the bulky nature of forest produce its transport forms a business of considerable magnitude, the amount of labour being perhaps equal to half that employed under the first head . The greatest amount of labour is, however, required in the working up of the raw material yielded by forests .

In this respect attention may be drawn to the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair industry in and around High See also:

• WYCOMBE (officially CHEPPING WYCOMBE, also CHIPPING or HIGH WYCOMBE)

Wycombe in See also:

• BUCKINGHAMSHIRE (abbreviated Bucks)
• BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, EARLS OF

Buckinghamshire, where more than 20,000 workmen are employed in converting the beech, grown on the adjoining See also:

• CHALK

chalk hills, into chairs and tools of many patterns . See also:

• COMPLETE

Complete statistics for Great Britain are not available under this head, but it may be mentioned that in Germany the people employed in the forests amount to 2.3 % of the See also:

• TOTAL

total population; those employed on transport of forest produce 1.1 %; labourers employed on the various wood industries, 8-6 %; or a total of 12 % . An important feature of the work connected with forests and their produce is that a great part of it can be made to See also:

• FIT

fit in with the requirements of agriculture; that is to say, it can be done at seasons when field crops do not require attention . Thus the rural labourers or small farmers can See also:

• EARN

earn some See also:

• MONEY

money at times when they have nothing else to do, and when they would probably sit idle if no forest work were obtainable . Whether, or how far, the utility of forests is brought out in a particular country depends on its See also:

• SPECIAL

special conditions, such as (r) the position of a country, its communications, and the See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control which it exercises over other countries, such as colonies; (2) the quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce available in the country; (3) the value of land and labour, and the returns which land yields if used for other purposes; (4) the See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of population; (5) the amount of capital available for investment; (6)"-the climate and configuration; especiallythe See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position, whether inland or on the border of the sea, &c . No general rule can be laid down, showing whether forests are required in a country, or, if so, to what extent; that question must be answered according to the special circumstances of each case . The subjoined table shows the forests of various See also:

• EUROPEAN

European states: Countries . Area of Per- Per- Forest Forests, in centage centage Area See also:

• PEA (Pisum)

pea of Total of Forest Head of Area of Area be- Acres . Country longing Popula- under to the tion, in Forest . See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

State . Acres . Sweden .

. . . 49,000,000 48 33 9'5 Norway 17,000,000 21 28 7.6 Russia, including Fin- 518,000,000 . 40 61 5.9 land . . . Bosnia and . Herze- 6,400,000 50 78 4.o govina . See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria 7,600,000 30 30 2.3 See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey 11,200,000 20 .. 1.7 See also:

• SERVIA

Servia 3,900,000 32 37 1.5 See also:

• RUMANIA
• RUMANIA, or ROUMANIA [Romdnia]

Rumania 6,400,000 18 40 1.3 See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain 21,200,000 17 84 1.2 See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary 22,500,000 28 15 1.2 See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria 24,000,000 32 7 . '9 See also:

• GREECE

Greece 2,000,000 13 8o •85 See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg 200,000 30 .. .82 Switzerland 2,100,000 20 5 •7 Germany 35,000,000 26 34 •6 See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France 24,000,000 18 12 •6 Italy 10,400,000 15 4 '3 See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark 60o,000 6 24 .25 See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium 1,300,000 18 5 •2 See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal 770,000 3.5 8 .15 See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland 560,000 7 ? •1 Great Britain . 3,000,000 4 3 .07 These data exhibit considerable See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences, since the percentage of the forest area varies from 3.5 to 50, and the area per head of population from •07 to 9.5 acres .

Russia, Sweden and Norway may as yet have more forest than they require for their own population . On the other hand, Great Britain and Ireland, Germany, Denmark, Portugal, Holland, and even Belgium, France and Italy have not a sufficient forest area to meet their own requirements; at the same time, they are all sea-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound countries, and importation is easy, while most of them are under the influence of moist sea winds, which reduces to a subordinate position the importance of forests for climatic reasons . Intimately connected with the area of forests in a country is the state of ownership—whether they belong to the state, corporations or to private persons . Where, apart from the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial aspect and the supply of work, forests are not required for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of their indirect effects, and where importation from other countries is easy and assured, the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the country need not, as a rule, trouble itself to maintain or acquire forests . Where the See also:

• REVERSE

reverse conditions exist, and especially where the cost of transport over See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long distances becomes prohibitive, a See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise administration will take measures to assure the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of a suitable proportion of the country under forest . This can be done either by maintaining or constituting a suitable area of state forests, or by exercising a certain amount of control over See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation and even private forests . Such measures are more called for in See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental countries than in those which are sea-bound, as is proved by the- above statistics . Supply of Timber — Imports and Exports.—The following table shows the See also:

• NET

net imports and exports of European countries (See also:

• AVERAGE

average data, calculated from the returns of See also:

• RECENT

recent years) . The only timber-exporting countries of Europe are Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary and Rumania; all the others either have only enough for their own See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption, or import timber . Great Britain and Ireland import now upwards of 20,000,000 tons a year, -Germany about 4,600,000 tons, and Belgium about 1,300,000 tons . Holland, France, Portugal, Spain and Italy are all importing countries, as also are See also:

• ASIA

Asia Minor, See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and See also:

• ALGERIA
• ALGERIA (Algerie)

Algeria . The west coast of Africa exports hardwoods, and imports coniferous timber .

The Cape and See also:

• NATAL

Natal import considerable quantities of pine and fir wood . See also:

• AUSTRALASIA

Australasia Net Imports and Exports of European Countries . Countries . Quantities in Tons . Value in See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

Sterling . Imports . Exports . Imports . Exports . See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom . 10,004,000 .. 26,540,000 Germany .

4,600,000 .. 14,820,000 Belgium . . . I ,300,000 . . 5,040,000 France . . . . 1,230,000 . . 3050,000 Italy . . . . 620,000 .. 2,100,000 Spain . . .

. 470,000 . 1,500,000 Denmark . . . 470,000 .. 1,250,000 Switzerland . . 204,000 .. 480,000 Holland 18o,000 720,000 Servia . . 110,000 .. 16o,000 Portugal . . . 6o,00o 200,000 Greece . 35,000 I 130,000 Rumania .

. . . 400,000 .. 840,000 .. Norway 1,300,000 , .. 2,200,000 Austria - Hungary 3,996,000 .. 11,400,000 with Bosnia and Herzegovina Sweden .. 4,460,000 7,930,000 Russia with Fin- .. 6,89o,000 .. 10:440,000 land . . . 'Fatal 19,283,000 17,046,000 56,890,000 32,810,000 . . nee_ Net Imports 2,237,000 24,080,000 These net imports are received from non-European countries .

They consist chiefly of valuable hardwoods, like teak, mahogany, eucalypts and others . exports hardwoods and some Kauri pine from New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand, but imports larger quantities of light pine and fir timber . See also:

• BRITISH

British India and See also:

• SIAM (known to its inhabitants as Muang Thai)

Siam export teak and small quantities of See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods . The West Indies and South America export hardwoods, and import pine and fir wood . The United States of America will not much longer be a genuine exporting country, since they import already almost as much timber from Canada as they export . Canada exports considerable quantities of timber . The Dominion has still a forest area of 1,250,000 sq, m., equal to 38 % ',of the total area, and giving 165 acres of forest for every inhabitant . Although only about one-third of the forest area can be called See also:

• REGULAR

regular timber land, Canada possesses an enormous forest See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, with which she might supply permanently nearly all other countries deficient in material, if the governing bodies in the several provinces would only determine to stop the See also:

• PRESENT

present fearful See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste caused by See also:

• AXE (0. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms, in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek 41v17; the New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax ")

axe and See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire, and to introduce a regular See also:

• SYSTEM

system of management . As matters stand, the supplies of the most valuable timber of Canada, the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white or See also:

• WEYMOUTH

Weymouth pine (Pious strobus), arc nearly exhausted, the great stores of spruce in the eastern- provinces are being rapidly destroyed, and the forests of See also:

• DOUGLAS
• DOUGLAS, GAVIN (1474?-1522)
• DOUGLAS, JOHN (1721—1807.)
• DOUGLAS, SIR CHARLES
• DOUGLAS, SIR HOWARD
• DOUGLAS, STEPHEN ARNOLD (18,3–1861)

Douglas fir in the western provinces have been attacked for export to the United States and to other countries . Taking the remaining See also:

• STOCKS

stocks of the whole earth together, it may be said that a sufficient quantity of hardwoods is available, but the only countries which are able to supply coniferous timber for export on a considerable scale are Russia, Sweden, Norway, Austria and Canada . As these countries have practically, to supply the rest of the See also:

• WORLD

world, and as the management of their forests is far from satisfactory, the question of supplying light pine and fir timber, which forms the very See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff of life of the wood industries, must become a very serious See also:

• MATTER

matter before many years have passed . Unmistakable signs of the coming crisis are every-where visible to all who wish to see, and it is difficult to over-state the gravity of the problem, when it is remembered, for instance, that 87 % of all the timber imported into Great Britain consists of light pine and fir, and that most of the other importing countries are similarly situated .

In some of these countries little or no See also:

• ROOM

room exists for the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of woodland, but this statement does not apply to Great Britain and Ireland, whichcontain upwards-of 12;000,000 acres of waste land, and s a, 500,00o acres of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain and See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath land used for light grazing . One-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth of that area, if put under forest, would produce all the timber now imported which can be. grown in Britain, that is to say, about 95 % of the total . The subjoined table shows the movements of timber within the greater part of the•' British See also:

• EMPIRE

empire: Net Imports and Exports into and from the British Empire . Annual Average Annual Average during the Years during the Years 1884–1888 . 1900-1903 . Countries . Net Net Net Net Imports . Exports . Imports . Exports . United Kingdom . 15,000,000 ..

26,540,000 Australasia . 1,284,000 .. 568,000 Africa . 72,000 737,000 West Indies, .. 207,000 .. 71,000 Honduran and See also:

• GUIANA (Guyana, Guayana')

Guiana India, See also:

• CEYLON

Ceylon and .. 528,000 580,000 See also:

• MAURITIUS

Mauritius . Dominion of 4,025,000 4,789,000 Canada Total 16,356,000 4,760,000 27,845,000 5,440,000 Net Imports . 11,596,000 • . 22,405,000 Total increase in io,8o9,000 16 years Average annual 675,562 increase of net imports . Forest Management.—In See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times there was practically no forest management . As long as the forests occupied considerable areas, their produce was looked upon as the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• GIFT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. die Gift, gift, das Gift, poison, formed from the Teut. stem gab-, to give, cf. Dutch geven, Ger. geben; in O. Eng. the word appears with initial y, the guttural of later English is due to Scandinavian influence)

gift of nature, like air and water; men took it, used it, and even destroyed it without let or hindrance .

With the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual increase of population and the consequent reduction of the forest area, proprietary ideas See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed; people claimed the ownership of certain forests, and proceeded to protect them against outsiders . Subsequently the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of the country was called in to help in protection, leading to the promulgation of special forest See also:

• LAWS

laws . By degrees it was found that See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere protection was not sufficient, and that steps must be taken to enforce a more judicious treatment,as well as to limit the removal of timber to what the forests were capablenf producing permanently . ' The teaching of natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and of See also:

• POLITICAL

political economy was brought 'to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear upon the subject, so that now forestry has become a special science . This is recognized in many countries, amongst which Germany stands first, closely followed by France, Austria, Denmark and Belgium . Of non-European countries the See also:

• PALM (Lat. palma, Gr. iraX6.jn )
• PALM, JOHANN PHILIPP (1768-1806)

palm belongs to British India, and then follow Ceylon, the See also:

• MALAY

Malay States, the Cape of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

Good See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

Hope and Japan . The United States of America have also turned their attention to the subject . Most of the British colonies are, in this respect, as yet in a backward state, and the matter has still to be fought out in Great Britain and Ireland, though many writers have urged the importance of the question upon the public and the government . There can be no doubt that all civilized countries must, sooner or later, adopt a rational and systematic treatment of their forests . For details as to the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate countries, see the articles under the country headings; in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article only some of the more important countries are dealt with, in so far as the See also:

• HISTORY

history of their forestry is important . A few notes on Germany and France will be given, because in these countries forest management has been brought to highest perfection; Italy is mentioned, because she has allowed her forests to be destroyed; and a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short description of forestry in the United Kingdom and in India follows . A separate section is devoted to the United States .

Germany is in general well-wooded . The winters being long and severe, an abundant supply of See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel is almost as essential as a sufficient supply of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food . This See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity has led, along with a See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion for the chase, to the preservation of forests, and to the establishment of an admirable system of forest cultivation, almost as carefully conducted as field tillage . The See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Forest stretches the whole length of the See also:

• GRAND

grand-duchy of See also:

• BADEN
• BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF

Baden and part of the kingdom of Wtirttemberg, from the See also:

• NECKAR

Neckar to See also:

• BASEL (Fr. Bale)
• BASEL (Fr. Belle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital. Basilea)
• BASEL, CONFESSION OF
• BASEL, COUNCIL OF

Basel and the Lakeof See also:

• CONSTANCE
• CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz)
• CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
• CONSTANCE, LAKE OF (called by the Romans Lacus Brigantinus or lake of Bregenz, and now usually named in German Bodensee, as well as the " Swabian Sea ")

Constance . The vegetation resembles that of the See also:

• VOSGES
• VOSGES (Lat. Vogesus or Vosagus, Ger. Wasgau or Vogesen)

Vosges; forests of spruce, silver fir, Scotch pine, and, mingled with birches, beech and oak, are the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief woods met with . Until comparatively recent times large quantities of timber derived from these forests were floated down the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine to Holland and also shipped to See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . Now the greater part of it is used locally for construction, or it is converted into See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper pulp . In the grand-duchy of See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse the See also:

• ODENWALD

Odenwald range of mountains, stretching between the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main and the Neckar, contains the chief supply of timber . In the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau there are the large wooded tracts of the See also:

• TAUNUS

Taunus mountain range and the Westerwald . In Rhenish See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia valuable forests See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie partly in the See also:

• EIFEL

Eifel, on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of Belgium, and on the mountains overhanging the Upper Moselle, but they do not furnish such stately trees as the Black Forest and the Odenwald . The See also:

• SPESSART

Spessart, near See also:

• ASCHAFFENBURG

Aschaffenburg in See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, is one of the most extensive forests of middle Germany, containing large masses of See also:

• FINE

fine oak and beech, with plantations of coniferous trees, such as spruce, Scotch pine and silver fir . Bavaria possesses other fine forest tracts, such as the Baierischewald on the Bohemian frontier, the Kranzberg near See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, and the See also:

• FRANKENWALD

Frankenwald in the north of the kingdom .

North Germany has extensive forests on the See also:

• HARE
• HARE, SIR JOHN (1844– )

Hare and Thuringian Mountains, while in See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East Prussia large tracts of See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat ground are covered with Scotch pine, spruce, oak and beech . Every See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German state has its forest organization . In Prussia the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department is presided over by the Oberland Forstmeister at See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, while each province, or part of a province, has an Oberforstmeister, under whom a number of OberfSrsters administrate the state and communal forests . These, again, are assisted by a lower class of officials called Forsters . The Oberforsters throughout Germany are educated at special See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of forestry, of which in r9o9 the following nine existed: In Prussia: at See also:

• EBERSWALDE

Eberswalde and Miinden . In Bavaria: at Munich and Aschaffenburg . In See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony: at Tharand . In See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg: at See also:

• TUBINGEN