See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

DUKE OF See also:

• OTRANTO

OTRANTO See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

JOSEPH See also:

• DUKE OF OTRANTO JOSEPH FOUCHE (1763—1820)

FOUCHE (1763—1820)  , See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French statesman, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in a small See also:

• VILLAGE

village near See also:

• NANTES
• NANTES, EDICT OF

Nantes on the 21st of May 1763 . His See also:

• FATHER

father, a seafaring See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, destined him for the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea; but the weakness of his See also:

• FRAME

frame and the precocity of his talents soon caused this See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea to be given up . He was educated at the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of the Oratorians at Nantes, and showed marked aptitude for studies both See also:

• LITERARY

literary and scientific . Desiring to enter the teaching profession he was sent to an institution kept by brethren of the same See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order at See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris . There also he made rapid progress, and soon entered upon tutorial duties at the colleges of See also:

• NIORT

Niort, See also:

• SAUMUR

Saumur, See also:

• VENDOME
• VENDOME, LOUIS JOSEPH

Vendome, Juilly and See also:

• ARRAS

Arras . At Arras he had some dealings with See also:

• ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIEN FRANCOIS MARIE ISIDORE DE (175$-1794)

Robespierre at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the beginning of the French Revolution (178g) . In See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1790 he was transferred by the Oratorians to their college at Nantes, owing to irregularities due to his zeal for revolutionary principles; but at Nantes he showed even more democratic fervour . His abilities and the zeal with which he espoused the most subversive notions brought him into favour with the populace at Nantes; he became a leading member of the See also:

• LOCAL

local Jacobin See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

club; and on the See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of the college of the Oratorians at Nantes in May 1792, See also:

• FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763—1820)

Fouche gave up all connexion with the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church, whose See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major vows he had not taken . After the downfall of the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy on the loth of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1792, he was elected as See also:

• DEPUTY (through the Fr. from a Late Lat. use of deputare, to cut off, allot; putare having the original sense of to trim, prune)

deputy for the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the See also:

• LOWER

Lower See also:

• LOIRE

Loire to the See also:

• NATIONAL

National See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention which met at the autumnal See also:

• EQUINOX (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and nox, night)

equinox and proclaimed the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic . The literary and pedagogic sympathies of Fouche at first brought him into See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with See also:

• CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT, MARQUIS DE (1743-1794)

Condorcet and the party, or See also:

• GROUP

group, of the See also:

• GIRONDISTS (Fr. Girondins)

Girondists; but their vacillation at the time of the trial and See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XVI . (See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1792—See also:

• JANUARY

January 21, 1793) led him to espouse the cause of the See also:

• JACOBINS, THE

Jacobins, the less scrupulous and more thoroughgoing champions of revolutionary See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine . On the question of the execution of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, Fouche, after some preliminary hesitations, expressed himself with the utmost vigour in favour of immediate execution, and denounced those who " wavered before the See also:

• SHADOW (0. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of " shade "; connected with Gr. 6-Ore's, darkness)

shadow of a king." The crisis which resulted from the See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war by the Convention against See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland (Feb .

1, 1793), and a little later against See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, brought Fouche into notoriety as one of the fiercest of the Jacobinical fanatics who then held See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power at Paris . While the armies of the first See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition threatened the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, a revolt of the royalist peasants of See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany and la See also:

• VENDEE
• VENDEE, WARS OF THE

Vendee menaced the Convention on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west . That See also:

• BODY

body deputed Fouche with a colleague, Villers, to proceed to the west as commissioners invested with almost dictatorial See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers for the crushing of the revolt of " the whites." The vigour with which he carried out these duties earned him other See also:

• WORK

work, and he soon held the See also:

• POST

post of See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner of the republic in the department of the See also:

• NIEVRE

Nievre . Together with See also:

• CHAUMETTE, PIERRE GASPARD (1763-1794)

Chaumette, he helped to initiate the atheistical See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, the founders of which in the autumn of 1793 began to aim at the extinction of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity in France . In the department of the Nievre he ransacked the churches, sent their spoils to the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury and established the cult of the goddess of See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

Reason . Over the cemeteries, he ordered these words to be inscribed: " See also:

• DEATH

Death is an eternal See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep." He also waged war against luxury and See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, and desired to abolish the use of See also:

• MONEY

money . The new cult was inaugurated at Paris at Notre See also:

• DAME
• DAME (through the Fr. from Lat. domina, mistress, lady, the feminine of dominus, master, lord)

Dame by the See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange See also:

• ORGY (through French from Lat. orgia, Gr. 6pyca, in derivation connected probably with 'ipyov, work; cf. Lat. operare, to sacrifice)

orgy known as " The Festival of Reason " (See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1o, 1793) . Fouche then proceeded to See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons to execute the vengeance of the Convention on that See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, which had revolted against the new Jacobin tyranny . Preluding his work by a festival remark-able for its obscene See also:

• PARODY (Gr. s-apybia, literally a song sung beside, a comic parallel)

parody of religious See also:

• RITES

rites, he then, along with his colleague, See also:

• COLLOT

Collot d'Herbois, set the See also:

• GUILLOTINE

guillotine and See also:

• CANNON (a word common to Romance languages, from the Lat. canna, a reed, tube, with the addition of the augmentative termination -on, -one)

cannon to work with a rigour which made his name odious . See also:

• MODERN

Modern See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, however, proves that at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of those horrors Fouche exercised a moderating See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . Outwardly his conduct was marked by the utmost rigour, and on his return to Paris See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in See also:

• APRIL

April 1794, he thus characterised his policy: " The See also:

• BLOOD

blood of criminals fertilises the See also:

• SOIL

soil of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and establishes power on sure See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations." By that time Robespierre had struck down the other leaders of the atheistical party; but early in See also:

• JUNE

June 1794, at the time of the " Festival of the Supreme Being," Fouche ventured to See also:

• MOCK

mock at the theistic revival which Robespierre then inaugurated . See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

Sharp passages of arms took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place between them, and Robespierre procured the ejection of Fouche from the Jacobin Club (See also:

• JULY

July 14, 1794) .

Fouche, however, was working with his customary skill and See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy, and along with See also:

• TALLIEN, JEAN LAMBERT (1767-1820)

Tallien and others, managed to effect the overthrow of the theistic See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator on See also:

• THERMIDOR (from Gr. BEpµrt, heat, and & pov, gift)

Thermidor to (July 28), 1794 . The ensuing reaction in favour of more merciful methods of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government threatened to sweep away the group of Terrorists who had been mainly instrumental in carrying through the coup d'etat of Thermidor; but, thanks largely to the skill of Fouche in intrigue, they managed for a time to keep at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of affairs . Discords, however, crept in which See also:

• LEFT

left him for a time almost isolated, and it needed all his ability to withstand the attacks of the moderates . A vigorous attack on him by See also:

• BOISSY

Boissy d'Anglas, on the 9th of August 1795, caused him to be arrested, but the troubles which ensued in Vendemiaire averted the See also:

• DOOM (Old Eng. dOm, a word common to Tent. languages for that which is set up or ordered, from " do," in its original meaning of " place "; cf, Gr. &Ass, from stem of ri'rust)

doom that seemed to be pending; and he owed his See also:

• RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare)

release to the See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty which was passed on the See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation of the new constitution of the See also:

• YEAR

year 1795 . In the ensuing See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, known as that of the See also:

• DIRECTORY

Directory (1795—1799), Fouche remained at first in obscurity, but the relations which he had with the communists, once headed by Chaumette and now by See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois N . (" See also:

• GRACCHUS

Gracchus ") See also:

• BABEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL (1760-t797)

Babeuf (q.v.), helped him to rise once more . He is said to have betrayed to the director See also:

• BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-1829)

Barras the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret of the strange See also:

• PLOT
• PLOT, ROBERT (164o-1696)

plot which Babeuf and a few accomplices hatched in the year 1796; but See also:

• RECENT

recent research has tended to throw doubt on the assertion . His rise from poverty was slow, but in 1797 he gained an See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment for the See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of military materiel, which offered opportunities See also:

• DIRECT

direct and indirect . After offering his services to the royalists, whose movement was then gathering force, he again decided to support the Jacobins and the director Barras (q.v.) . In the coup d'etat of Fructidor 1797 he made himself serviceable to Barras, who in 1798 appointed him to be French See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador to the Cisalpine republic . At See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan he carried matters with so high a See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand against the Gallophobes of that government that his actions were disavowed and he himself was removed; but in the confused See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state in which matters then were, he was able for a time to hold his own and to intrigue successfully against his successor . Early in 1799 he returned to Paris, and after a brief See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office as ambassador at The See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague, he became See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police at Paris (July 20, 1799) .

The newly elected director, Sieyes (q.v.),was then in the ascendant and desired to curb the excesses of the Jacobins, who had recently reopened their club . Fouche, casting consistency to the winds, closed the Jacobins club in a manner at once daring and See also:

• CLEVER

clever . Thereupon he hunted down the pamphleteers and editors, whether Jacobins or royalists, who were See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious to the government, so that at the time of the return of See also:

• BONAPARTE

Bonaparte from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt (October 1799) the ex-Jacobin was one of the most powerful men in France . Knowing well the unpopularity of the See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors, Fouche See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent himself to the schemes of Bonaparte and Sieyes for their over-throw . His activity in furthering the coup d'etat of See also:

• BRUMAIRE

Brumaire 18-19 (November 9-1o), 1799, procured him the favour of Bonaparte, who kept him in office (v . See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon I.) . In the ensuing period of the Consulate (1799—1804) Fouche behaved with the utmost adroitness . While curbing the royalists and extreme Jacobins who at first alone opposed Bonaparte, Fouche was careful to See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper as far as possible the arbitrary actions of the new See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of France . In this difficult task he acquitted himself with so much skill as to See also:

• EARN

earn at times the gratitude even of the royalists . Thus, while countermining a foolish intrigue of theirs in which the duchesse de Guiche was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent, Fouche took care that she should See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape . Equally skilful was his See also:

• ACTION

action in the affair of the so-called See also:

• ARENA (Lat. for " sand ")

Arena-Ceracchi plot, in which the agents provocateurs of the police were believed to have played a sinister See also:

• PART

part . The chief " conspirators " were easily ensnared and were executed when the affair of Niv6se (December 1800) enabled Bonaparte to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act with rigour .

This far more serious See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt (in which royalist conspirators exploded a See also:

• BOMB

bomb near the First See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

Consul's See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage with results disastrous to the bystanders) was soon seen by Fouche to be the work of royalists; and when the First Consul, eager to entrap the still formidable Jacobins, sought to fasten the blame on them, Fouche firmly declared that he would not only assert but would prove that the See also:

• OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oultrage, from Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger)

outrage was the work of royalists . All his efforts, however, failed to avert the See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment which Bonaparte was resolved to inflict on the leading Jacobins . In other matters (especially in that known as the Plot of the Placards in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 18o2) Fouche was thought to have secured the Jacobins concerned from the vengeance of the First Consul . In any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case the latter resolved to rid himself of a man who had too much power and too much skill in intrigue to be desirable as a sub-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate . On the proclamation of Bonaparte as First Consul for See also:

• LIFE

life (August 1, adz) Fouche was deprived of his office; but the See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow was softened by the suppression of the See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry of police and by the attribution of most of its duties to an extended ministry of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice . Fouche also became a senator and received See also:

• HALF

half of the reserve funds of the police which had accumulated during his tenure of office . He continued, however, to intrigue through his spies, whose See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information was so See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to that of the new minister of police as to render See also:

• GREAT

great services to Napoleon at the time of the See also:

• CADOUDAL, GEORGES (1771-1804)

Cadoudal-See also:

• PICHEGRU, CHARLES (1761-1804)

Pichegru See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy (See also:

• FEBRUARY

February—See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1804) . As a result Napoleon, now See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, brought back Fouche to the re-constituted ministry of police (July 1804); he also later on entrusted to him that of the interior . His work was no less important than at the time of the Consulate . His police agents were ubiquitous, and the terror which Napoleon and Fouche inspired, owing to their proven ability to benefit by plots, partly accounts for the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of conspiracies after 1804 . After See also:

• AUSTERLITZ (Czech Slavkov)

Austerlitz (December 18o5) Fouche uttered the mot of the occasion: " Sire, Austerlitz has shattered • the old See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy; the See also:

• BOULEVARD (a Fr. word, earlier boulevart, from Dutch or Ger. Bollwerk, cf. Eng. " bulwark ")

boulevard St Germain no longer conspires." That Napoleon retained some feeling of distrust, or even of fear, of Fouche was proved by his conduct in the early days of 18o8 . While engaged in the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of Spain, the emperor heard rumours that Fouche and Talleyrand, once See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter enemies, were having interviews at Paris in which See also:

• MURAT, JOACHIM (1767—1815)

Murat, king of See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples, was concerned .

At once the sensitive autocrat hurried to Paris, but found nothing to incriminate Fouche . In that year Fouche received the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• OTRANTO

Otranto . During the absence of Napoleon in See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria in the campaign of 1809, the See also:

• BRITISH

British Walcheren expedition threatened for a time the safety of See also:

• ANTWERP
• ANTWERP (Fr. Anvers)

Antwerp . Fouche thereupon issued an order to the prefects of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern departments of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire for the mobilization of 6o,000 National See also:

• GUARDS, AND HOUSEHOLD TROOPS

Guards . He added to the order a statement in which occurred the words: " Let us prove to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe that although the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of Napoleon can throw lustre on France, his presence is not necessary to enable us to repulse the enemy." The emperor's approval of the measure was no less marked than his disapproval of the words just quoted . The next months brought further causes of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction between emperor and minister . The latter, knowing the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of his master for See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace at the close of the year 1809, undertook on his own See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account to make secret overtures to the British ministry . A little later Napoleon opened negotiations and found that Fouche had forestalled him . His rage against his minister was extreme, and on the 3rd of June 1810 he dismissed him from his office . However, as it was not the emperor's See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom completely to disgrace a man who might again be useful, Fouche received the governorship of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . He went thither, not as See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor but as fugitive, for on receiving the emperor's order to give up certain important documents of his former ministry, he. handed over only a few, declaring that the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest were destroyed . At this the emperor's anger burst forth again, and Fouche on learning, after his arrival at See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, that the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm was still raging at Paris, prepared to See also:

• SAIL

sail to the See also:

• UNITED

United States .

Compelled, however, by stress of See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather and sickness to put back again, he found a mediator in Elisa Bonaparte, See also:

• GRAND

grand duchess of See also:

• TUSCANY
• TUSCANY (Toscana)

Tuscany, thanks to whom he was allowed to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle at See also:

• AIX

Aix and finally to return to his domain of Point See also:

• CANE

Cane . In 1812 he sought vainly to turn Napoleon from the projected invasion of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia; and on the return of the emperor in haste from Smorgoni to Paris at the close of that year, the ex-minister of police was suspected of complicity in the conspiracy of See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• MALET, LUCAS

Malet, which came so strangely near to success . From this suspicion Fouche cleared himself and gave the emperor useful See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice concerning See also:

• INTERNAL

internal affairs and the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic situation . Nevertheless, the emperor, still distrustful of the See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch-intriguer, ordered him to undertake the government of the Illyrian provinces . On the break-up of the See also:

• NAPOLEONIC

Napoleonic See also:

• SYSTEM

system in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany in October 1813 Fouche was ordered to repair to Rome and thence to Naples, in order to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch the movements of Murat . Before Fouche arrived at Naples Murat threw off the See also:

• MASK (Fr. masque, apparently from med. Lat. mascus, masca, spectre, through Ital. maschera, Span. mascara)

mask and invaded the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman territory, whereupon Fouche received orders to return to France . He arrived at Paris on the loth of April 1814 at the- time when Napoleon was being See also:

• CON

con-strained by his marshals to abdicate . The conduct of Fouche at this crisis was characteristic . As senator he advised the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate to send a deputation to the See also:

• COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857)

Comte d'See also:

• ARTOIS

Artois, See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Louis XVIII., with a view to a reconciliation between the monarchy and the nation . A little later he ad-dressed to Napoleon, then at See also:

• ELBA (Gr. AiWaXla; Lat. Ilva)

Elba, a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter begging him in the interests of peace and of France to withdraw to the United States . To the new See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign Louis XVIII. he sent an See also:

• APPEAL

appeal in favour of liberty and recommending the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of See also:

• MEASURES

measures which would conciliate all interests . It was not successful, but Fouche remained unmolested .

This was far from satisfying him, and when he found that there were no hopes of See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement, he entered into relations with conspirators who sought the overthrow of the Bourbons . See also:

• LAFAYETTE

Lafayette and See also:

• DAVOUT, LOUIS NICOLAS

Davout were concerned in the affair, but their refusal to take the course desired by Fouche and other bold See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits led to nothing being done . Soon Napoleon escaped from Elba and made his way in See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph to Paris . Shortly before his arrival at Paris (March 19, 1815) Louis XVIII. sent to Fouche an offer of the ministry of police, which he declined, saying, " It is too See also:

• LATE

late; the only See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan to adopt is to See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat." He then foiled an attempt of the royalists to See also:

• ARREST (Fr. arrester, arreeter, to stop or stay)

arrest him, and on the arrival of Napoleon he received for the third time the See also:

• PORT

port-See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

folio of police . That, however, did not prevent him from entering into secret relations with Metternich at See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, his aim being then, as always, to prepare for all eventualities . Meanwhile he used all his powers to induce the emperor to popularise his See also:

• RULE

rule, and he is said to have caused the insertion of the words " The See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty resides in the See also:

• PEOPLE

people; it is the source ofpower " in the declaration of the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of state . But the autocratic tendencies of Napoleon could scarcely be held in check, and Fouche seeing the fall of the emperor to be imminent, took measures to expedite it and secure his own interests . On the 22nd of June Napoleon abdicated for the second time, and Fouche was next See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day elected See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president of the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission which provisionally governed France . Already he was in touch with Louis XVIII., then at- See also:

• GHENT (Flem. Gent, Fr. Gand)

Ghent, and now secretly received the overtures of his agent at Paris . While ostensibly working for the recognition of Napoleon II., he facilitated the success of the See also:

• BOURBON
• BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (149o-1527)

Bourbon cause, and thus procured for himself a place in the ministry of Louis XVIII . Even his skill, however, was unequal to the task of conciliating hot-headed royalists who remembered his See also:

• VOTE

vote as See also:

• REGICIDE (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill)

regicide and his fanaticism as terrorist . He resigned office, and after acting for a brief space as ambassador at See also:

• DRESDEN

Dresden, he retired to See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague .

Finally he settled at See also:

• TRIESTE (Ger. Triest; Slay. Trst; the Roman Tergeste, q.v.)

Trieste, where he died on the 25th of December 182o . He had accumulated great wealth . Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least conscientious, Fouche's See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character deteriorated in and after the year 1794 into one of calculating cunning . The transition represented all that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution and Empire . In Fouche the See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the period 1795–1799 and the See also:

• AUTOCRACY (Gr. abroepareca, absolute power)

autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument . Yet his intellectual See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride prevented him sinking to the level of a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool . .His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain aloofness . He multiplied the means of resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced . Despised by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness . He repaid the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn . He sought for power and neglected no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared to be imminent . Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors, See also:

• PRESENT

present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party .

In this versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica . Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving France . Talleyrand certainly did so in the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy; Fouche may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue . Bibliography.—Fouche wrote some See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets and reports, the chief of which are Riflexions sur le jugerment de Louis Ca pet (1793) ; Refiexions sur l'See also:

• EDUCATION

education publique (1793) Rapport et projet de loi relatif aux colleges (179) ; Rapport sur la situation de See also:

• COMMUNE (Med. Lat. communia, Lat. communis, common)
• COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL

Commune-Affranchie [Lyons] (1794) ; Lettre aux prefets concernant See also:

• LES

les prams, &c . (1801); also the letters of 1815 noted above, and a Lettre au duc de See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington (1817) . The best life of Fouche is that by L . Madelin, Fouche (2 vols., Paris, 1901) . The so-called Fouche See also:

• MEMOIRS

Memoirs are not genuine, but they were apparently compiled, at least in part, from notes written by Fouche, and are often valuable, though their account of events (e.g. of the negotiations of 1809–1810) is not seldom untrustworthy . For those negotiations see Coquelle, Napoleon et l'Angleterre (Paris, 1903, Eng. trans., See also:

• LONDON

London, 1904) . For the plots with which Fouche had to See also:

• DEAL

deal see E . See also:

• DAUDET, ALPHONSE (1840-1897)

Daudet, La Police et les See also:

• CHOUANS (a Bas-Breton word signifying screech-owls)

Chouans sous le Consulat et l'Empire (Paris, 1895) ; P . M .

C . See also:

• DESMAREST, NICOLAS (1725-1815)

Desmarest, Temoignages historiques, ou quinze ans de haute police (Paris, 1833, 2nd ed., 1900) ; E . See also:

• PICARD, LOUIS JOSEPH ERNEST (1821-1877)

Picard, Bonaparte et See also:

• MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826-1898)
• MOREAU, HEGESIPPE (18ro-1838)
• MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR MARIE (1763-1813)

Moreau (Paris, 19o5); G . A . See also:

• THIERRY

Thierry, Conspirateurs et gens de police; le complot de libelles (Paris, 1903) (Eng. trans., London, 1903) ; H . Welschinger, Le Duc d'See also:

• ENGHIEN
• ENGHIEN, LOUIS ANTOINE HENRI DE BOURBON

Enghien (Paris, 1888) ; E . See also:

• GUILLON, MARIE NICOLAS SYLVESTRE (1760-1847)

Guillon, Les See also:

• CAM (CAO), DIOGO (fl. 1480-1486)

Cam plots militaires sous le Consulat et l'Empire (Paris, 1894) . (J . Ha . R.) FOUCHE$, See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

SIMON (1644-1696), French philosopher, was born at See also:

• DIJON

Dijon on the 1st of March 1644 . He was the son of a See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant, and appears to have taken orders at a very early See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . For some years he held the position of honorary See also:

• CANON

canon at Dijon, but this he resigned in order to take up his See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in Paris: He graduated at the See also:

• SORBONNE

Sorbonne, and spent the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of his life in literary work in Paris, where he died on the 27th of April 1696 .

In his day Foucher enjoyed considerable repute as a keen opponent - of See also:

• MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1638-1715)

Malebranche . His philosophical standpoint was one of See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism in regard to See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive)

perception . He revived the old arguments of the See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy, and advanced them with much ingenuity against Malebranche's doctrine, Otherwise his scepticism is subordinate to orthodox belief, the fundamental dogmas of the church seeming to him intuitively evident . His See also:

• OBJECT

object was to reconcile his religious with his philosophical creed, and to remain a See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian without ceasing to be an academician . His writings against Malebranche were collected under the title See also:

• DISSERTATIONS

Dissertations sur la recherche de la verite, 1693 . See F . Rabbe, L'See also:

• ABBE (Serbo-Croatian Rai))

Abbe Simon Foucher (1867); C . Jourdain in Dictionnaire See also:

• DES

des sciences philosophiques (1875), pp . 557-559 .