See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

FRANCOIS N  .) . Little was done to improve the finances, and the See also:

• ASSIGNATS (from Lat. assignatus, assigned)

assignats continued to fall in value . But the See also:

• DIRECTORY

Directory was sustained by the military successes of the See also:

• YEAR

year 1796 . See also:

• HOCHE, LAZARE (1768-1797)

Hoche again pacified La See also:

• VENDEE
• VENDEE, WARS OF THE

Vendee . See also:

• BONAPARTE

Bonaparte's victories in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy more than compensated for the reverses of See also:

• JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTE, COUNT (1762-1833)

Jourdan and See also:

• MOREAU, GUSTAVE (1826-1898)
• MOREAU, HEGESIPPE (18ro-1838)
• MOREAU, JEAN VICTOR MARIE (1763-1813)

Moreau in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . The See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia made See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace in May, ceding See also:

• NICE

Nice and See also:

• SAVOY, HOUSE
• SAVOY, HOUSE OF

Savoy to the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic and consenting to receive See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses . By the treaty of See also:

• SAN

San Ildefonso, concluded in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain became the ally of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . In See also:

• OCTOBER

October See also:

• NAPLES
• NAPLES (Ital. Napoli, and Lat. Neapolis)
• NAPLES, KINGDOM OF

Naples made peace . In 1797 Bonaparte finished the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Italy and forced See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria to make the treaty of Campo Formio (October), whereby the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor ceded See also:

• LOMBARDY

Lombardy and the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands to the Republic in See also:

• EXCHANGE

exchange for See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice and undertook to urge upon the See also:

• DIET

Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine . Notwithstanding the victory of Cape St See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent, See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England was brought into such extreme peril by the mutinies in the See also:

• FLEET

fleet that she offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the French colonies . The selfishness of the three See also:

• DIRECTORS

directors threw away this See also:

• GOLDEN

golden opportunity . In See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March and See also:

• APRIL

April the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of a new third of the See also:

• COUNCILS

Councils had been held .

It gave a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority to the constitutional party . Among the directors the See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell on Letourneur to retire, and he was succeeded by See also:

• BARTHELEMY
• BARTHELEMY, ANATOLE
• BARTHELEMY, AUGUSTE MARSEILLE (1796–1867)
• BARTHELEMY, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1747 or 1750-1830)
• BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES (1716–1795)

Barthelemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with See also:

• CARNOT, LAZARE EIPPOLYTE (18ot-1888)
• CARNOT, MARIE FRANCOIS SADI (1837-1894)
• CARNOT, SADI NICOLAS LEONHARD (1796-1832)

Carnot . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of emigres were repealed . Priests who would declare their submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens . It seemed likely that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power . See also:

• BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-1829)

Barras, See also:

• REWBELL, JEAN FRANCOIS (1747-1807)

Rewbell and La Revelliere-Lepeaux then sought help from the armies . Although Royalists formed but a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty fraction of the majority, they raised the alarm that coup d'etat it was seeking to restore See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy and undo the See also:

• WORK

work of the i8th Fructidor. of the Revolution . Hoche, then in command of the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of the Sambre and See also:

• MEUSE
• MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas)

Meuse, visited See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and sent troops . Bonaparte sent See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• AUGEREAU, PIERRE FRANCOIS CHARLES

Augereau, who executed the coup d'etat of the 18th Fructidor (See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 4) . The councils were purged, the elections in See also:

• FORTY

forty-nine departments were can- celled, and many deputies and other men of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note were arrested . Some of them, including Barthelemy, were deported to See also:

• CAYENNE

Cayenne . Carnot made See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good his See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape .

The two vacant places in the Directory were filled by See also:

• MERLIN, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1762-1833)
• MERLIN, PHILIPPE ANTOINE, COUNT (1754-1838)

Merlin of See also:

• DOUAI

Douai and See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois of Neuf- See also:

• CHATEAU (from Lat. castellum, fortress, through O. Fr. chastel, chasteau)

chateau . Then the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government frankly returned to Jacobin methods . The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law against the relatives of emigres was re- enacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn emigres who should return to France . The nonjuring priests were again persecuted . Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of Re and See also:

• OLERON

Oleron . La Revelliere Lepeaux seized the opportunity to propagate his See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . Many churches were turned into Theophilanthropic temples . The government strained its power to secure the recognition of the decadi as the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of public See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship and the non-observance of See also:

• SUNDAY

Sunday . See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

Liberty of the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press ceased . See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale . It was proposed to banish from France all members of the old noblesse . Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners and were forced to obtain See also:

• NATURALIZATION

naturalization if they would enjoy the rights of other citizens .

A formal See also:

• BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banquet table or counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken)

bankruptcy of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, the cancelling of two-thirds of the See also:

• INTEREST

interest on the public See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, crowned the misgovernment of this disastrous See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . In the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of Fructidor had to be filled . The constitutional party had been rendered helpless, and the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the See also:

• ELECTORS (Ger. Kurfursten, from Kilren, O.H.G. kiosan, choose, elect, and Furst, prince)

electors were in-different . But among the See also:

• JACOBINS, THE

Jacobins themselves there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the directors . With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it bade See also:

• FAIR

fair to gain a majority . Before the new deputies could take their seats the directors forced through the councils the law of the 22nd Floreal (May II), annulling or perverting the elections in See also:

• THIRTY

thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name . Even this coup d'etat did not secure See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony between the executive and the legislature . In the councils the directors were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment . The retirement of Francois of See also:

• NEUFCHATEAU

Neufchateau and the choice of See also:

• TREILHARD, JEAN BAPTISTE (1742–1810)

Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the position of the Directory . While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to See also:

• HUSBAND

husband the See also:

• NATIONAL

national strength and practise moderation towards other states . Since See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1797 a See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress had been sitting at Rastadt to regulate the future of Germany . That it should be brought to a successful conclusion was of the utmost import for France .

But the directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad . Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore sanctioned the expedition to See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt which deprived the Republic of its best army and most renowned See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain . Coveting the treasures of See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern, they sent See also:

• BRUNE, GUILLAUME MARIE ANNE (1763-1815)

Brune to invade See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland and remodel its constitution; in revenge for the See also:

• MURDER

murder of General Duphot, they sent See also:

• BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE

Berthier to invade the papal states and erect the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Republic; they occupied and virtually annexed See also:

• PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pedemons and Pedemontium)

Piedmont . In all these countries they organized such an effective pillage that the French became universally hateful . As the armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of See also:

• CONSCRIPTION (from Lat. con-, together, and scribere, to write)

conscription was passed in the summer of 1798 . The See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments . The priests were made responsible and some eight thousand were condemned in a mass to See also:

• DEPORTATION

deportation, although much the greater See also:

• PART

part escaped by the See also:

• GOODWILL

goodwill of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak as it was tyrannical . Under these circumstances See also:

• NELSON
• NELSON, HORATIO NELSON, VISCOUNT (1758-1805)
• NELSON, ROBERT (s656-1715)

Nelson's victory of See also:

• ABOUKIR

Aboukir (1st of August), which gave the See also:

• BRITISH

British full command of the Mediterranean and secluded Bonaparte in Egypt, was the See also:

• SIGNAL

signal for a second See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition . Naples, Austria, See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia and The second See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey joined See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain against France . See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand coalition. of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his See also:

• ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903)

allies were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily . In See also:

• JANUARY

January 1799 the French occupied Naples and set up the Parthenopean republic .

But the consequent See also:

• DISPERSION
• DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter)

dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to greater peril . At See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home the Directory was in a most See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical position . In the elections of April 1799 a large number of Jacobins gained seats . A little later Rewbell retired . It was imperative to fill his See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place with a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of ability and See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . The choice fell upon Sieyes, who had kept aloof from See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit but the respect of the public . Sieyes See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt that the Directory was bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be far more than a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere member of a See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

board . He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands,to bridle the Jacobins,and to remodel the constitution . With the help of Barras he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors . An irregularity having been discovered in Treilhard's election, he retired, and his place was taken by See also:

• GOHIER, LOUIS JEROME (1.746–1830)

Gohier . Merlin of Douai and La Revelliere Lepeaux were driven to resign in See also:

• JUNE

June . They were succeeded by See also:

• MOULIN (Fr. moulin, a mill)

Moulin and See also:

• DUCOS, PIERRE ROGER (1754-1816)

Ducos .

The three new directors were so insignificant that they could give no trouble, but for the same See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason they were of little service . Such a government was See also:

• ILL

ill fitted to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope with the dangers then gathering See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round France . The directors having resolved on the French offensive in Germany, the French crossed the Rhine reverses. See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in March, but were defeated by the See also:

• ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

archduke The Direc- See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles at Stockach on the 25th . The congress at Raseory ais- tadt, which had sat for fifteen months without doing credited. anything, See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke up in April and the French envoys were murdered by Austrian hussars . In Italy the allies took the offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian under the command of See also:

• SUVAROV

Suvarov . After defeating Moreau at See also:

• CASSANO

Cassano on the 27th of April, he occupied See also:

• MILAN
• MILAN (Ital. Milano, Ger. Mailand, anc. Mediolanum, q.v.)

Milan and See also:

• TURIN

Turin . The republics established by the French in Italy were overthrown, and the French army retreating from Naples was defeated by Suvarov on the Trebbia . Thus threatened with invasion on her See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German and See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian frontiers, France was disabled by anarchy within . The finances were in the last See also:

• DISTRESS

distress; the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-religious policy of the government kept many departments on the See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of revolt; and See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads and the increase of bandits . There was no real political freedom, yet none of the ease or See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security which enlightened despotism can bestow . The Terrorists lifted their heads in the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

Council of Five See also:

• HUNDRED

Hundred . A Law of Hostages, which was really a new Law of Suspects, and a progressive income tax showed the See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper of the majority .

The Jacobin See also:

• CLUB (connected with " clump ")

Club was reopened and became once more the See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus of disorder . The Jacobin press renewed the See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence of See also:

• HEBERT, EDMOND (s812-189o)
• HEBERT, JACQUES RENE (1757-1794)

Hebert and See also:

• MARAT, JEAN PAUL (1743-1793)

Marat . Never since the outbreak of the Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and desponding . In this extremity Sieyes See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose as See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police the old Terrorist See also:

• FOUCHE, JOSEPH, DUKE OF OTRANTO (1763—1820)

Fouche, who best understood how to See also:

• DEAL

deal with his brethren . Fouche closed the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists . But like his predecessors Sieyes felt that for the revolution which he meditated he must have the help of a soldier . As his man of See also:

• ACTION

action he chose General See also:

• JOUBERT, BARTHELEMY CATHERINE (1769–1799)
• JOUBERT, JOSEPH (1754–1824)
• JOUBERT, PETRUS JACOBUS (1834–1900)

Joubert, one of the most distinguished among French See also:

• OFFICERS

officers . Joubert was sent to restore the See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war in Italy . At Novi on the 15th of August he encountered Suvarov . He was killed at the outset of the See also:

• BATTLE

battle and his men were defeated . After this disaster the French held scarcely anything See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save See also:

• GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Genova, Fr. GPnes)

Genoa . The Russian and Austrian governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade France from the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east .

At the same time See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland was assailed by the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint forces of Great Britain and Russia . But the second coalition, like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow views and conflicting interests of its members . The invasion of Switzerland was baffled by want of See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert between Austrians and Russians and by See also:

• MASSENA, ANDRE, or ANDREA

Massena's victory at See also:

• ZURICH
• ZURICH (Fr. Zurich; Ital. Zurigo)

Zurich on the 25th and 26th of September . In October the British and the Russians were forced to evacuate Holland . All immediate danger to France was ended, but the issue of the war was still in suspense . The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte from Egypt . He anticipated their See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order and on the 9th of October landed at See also:

• FREJUS

Frejus . Dazzled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the` See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian expedition was ending in calamity . It received him with an ardour which convinced Sieyes that he was coup d'etat the indispensable soldier . Bonaparte was ready to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, of the 18th but at his own time and for his own ends . Since the snms)re . See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention affairs at home and abroad had been tending more and more surely to the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of a military dictatorship .

Feeling his See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers equal to such an office he only hesitated about the means of attainment . At first he thought of becoming a director; finally he decided upon a See also:

• PARTNERSHIP (earlier forms, partener, parcener, from Late Lat. partionarius for partitionarius, from partitio, sharing, pars, part)

partnership with Sieyes . They resolved to end the actual government by a fresh coup d'etat . Means were to be taken for removing the councils from Paris to St See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

Cloud, where pressure could more easily be applied . Then the councils would be induced to See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree a provisional government by three consuls and the See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment of a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission to revise the constitution . The pretext for this irregular proceeding was to be a vast Jacobin See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy . Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to be expected from the army . Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were honest republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves capable of governing France . With perfect subtlety Bonaparte worked on the feelings of all and kept his own intentions See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret . On the See also:

• MORNING

morning of the 18th See also:

• BRUMAIRE

Brumaire (See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 9) the Ancients, to whom that power belonged, decreed the transference of the councils to St Cloud . Of the directors, Sieyes and his friend Ducos had arranged to resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed into resigning; Gohier and See also:

• MOULINS

Moulins, who were intractable, found themselves imprisoned in the See also:

• LUXEMBURG
• LUXEMBURG, FRANCOIS HENRI DE MONTMORENCYBOUTEVILLE, DUKE

Luxemburg See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace and helpless . So far all had gone well .

But when the councils met at St Cloud on the following day, the majority of the Five Hundred showed themselves See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave signs of wavering . When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients, he lost his self-See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession and made a deplorable figure . When he appeared among the Five Hundred, they fell upon him with such fury that he was hardly rescued by his officers . A See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion to outlaw him was only baffled by the audacity of the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president, his See also:

• BROTHER

brother Lucien . At length driven to undisguised violence, he sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the deputies . Then the Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils for three months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos provisional consuls, and named the Legislative Commission . Some tractable members of the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and served to give these See also:

• MEASURES

measures the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of their See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House . Thus the Directory and the Councils came to their unlamented end . A shabby See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound of See also:

• BRUTE, SIMON WILLIAM GABRIEL (1779–1839)

brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, See also:

• NAY, or NEY

nay applauded, by the French nation . Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed . Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries a See also:

• TOTAL

total break in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of France, it was really far otherwise . Its results were momentous and durable in proportion Qenera/ as they were the outcome of causes which had been estimate of working See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long .

In France there had been no historic the Revel preparation for political freedom . The See also:

• DESIRE

desire for such cation. freedom was in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main confined to the upper classes . During the Revolution it was constantly baffled . No See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

Assembly after the states-general was freely elected and none deliberated in freedom . After the Revolution Bonaparte established a monarchy even more See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute than the monarchy of See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XIV . But the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be termed See also:

• CIVIL

civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many respects nurtured by the action of the See also:

• CROWN

crown and its ministers, and had become intense and general . Accordingly it determined the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal results of the Revolution . Uniformity of See also:

• LAWS

laws and institutions was enforced throughout France . The legal privileges formerly distinguishing different classes were sup-pressed . An obsolete and burthensome agrarian See also:

• SYSTEM

system was abolished . A number of large estates belonging to the crown, the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal prices to men of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle or See also:

• LOWER

lower class . The new See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence encouraged the multiplication of small properties .

The new fiscal system taxed men according to their means and raised no obstacle to commerce within the national boundaries . Every calling and profession was made See also:

• FREE

free to all French citizens, and in the public service the principle of an open career for See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent was adopted . Religious disabilities vanished, and there was well-nigh See also:

• COMPLETE

complete liberty of thought . It was because See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon gave a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form to these achievements of the Revolution and ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that the majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices which his policy exacted . That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane feeling should have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a See also:

• PARADOX (Gr. treat, beyond, contrary to, Sofia, opinion)

paradox which astounded spectators and still perplexes the historian . Something in the See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty of the French Revolution may he ascribed to national See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . From the time when Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the last insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been cruel . More, however, was due to the total See also:

• DISSOLUTION (from Lat. dissolvere, to break up into parts)

dissolution of society which followed the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of the states-general . In the course of the Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no governing mind . See also:

• MIRABEAU, ANDRE BONIFACE LOUIS RIQUETI, VICOMTE DE (1754-1792)
• MIRABEAU, HONORS GABRIEL RIQUETI, COMTE DE (1749-1791)
• MIRABEAU, VICTOR RIQUETI, MARQUIS DE (1715-1789)

Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman, and See also:

• DANTON, GEORGE JACQUES (1759-1794)

Danton was capable of statesmanship . But these men were not followed or obeyed save by See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident or for a moment . Those who seemed to govern were usually the See also:

• SPORT (a contracted or shortened form of "disport," to amuse, divert oneself, O. Fr. se dis porter or deporter, to leave off work, hence to play, Lat. dis-, away, and portare, to carry; the origin of the meaning lies in the notion of turning away from ser

sport of See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance, often the victims of their colleagues .

Neither Royalists nor Feuillants nor Girondins had the See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct of government . In the chaotic state of France all ferocious and destructive passions found ample See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope . The same conditions explain the See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the Jacobins . Devoid of See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at least understood how power might be seized and kept . The Reign of Terror was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness and unpopularity . It was not necessary either to secure the lasting benefits of the Revolution or to save France from dismemberment; for nine Frenchmen out of ten were agreed on both of these points and were ready to See also:

• LAY

lay down their lives for the national cause . In the history of the French Revolution the influence which it exerted upon the surrounding countries demands See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention . The French professed to act upon principles of universal authority, and from an early date they began to seek converts outside their own limits . The effect was slight upon England, which had already secured most of the reforms desired by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the people were entirely submissive to See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church and king . But in the Nether-lands, in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which had attained a degree of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization resembling that of France, where the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations not very different from those of the French, the effect was See also:

• PRO

pro-found . Fear of revolution at home was one of the motives which led See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental sovereigns to attack revolution in France . Their incoherent efforts only confirmed the Jacobin supremacy .

Wherever the victorious French extended their dominion, they remodelled institutions in the French manner . Their sway proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed them with most fervour soon came to long for their See also:

• EXPULSION (Lat. expulsio, from expellere)

expulsion . But revolutionary ideas kept their See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm . • Under Napoleon the essential part of the changes made by the Republic was preserved in these countries also . Moreover the effacement of old boundaries, the overthrow of ancestral governments, and the invocation, however hollow, of the See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty of the people, awoke national feeling which had slumbered long and prepared the struggle for national See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union and See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence in the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . See also FRANCE, sections History and Law and Institutions . For the leading figures iii the Revolution see their See also:

• BIOGRAPHIES

biographies under See also:

• SEPARATE

separate headings . Particular phases, facts, and institutions of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period are also separately dealt with, e.g . ASSIGNATS, CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL, JACOBINS . The See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of France and the state of public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion at the beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections of Cahiers . The Cahiers were the statements of grievances See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who had elected them . In every bailliage and senechaussee each See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were condensed from separate cahiers drawn up by each See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district .

Thus the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the greater part of which have not yet been printed . Among the collections printed we may mention See also:

• LES

Les Elections et les cahiers de Paris 169 en 1789, by C . L . Chassin (4 vols., Paris, 1888) ; Cahiers de plaintes et doleances See also:

• DES

des paroisses de la See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province de See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, by A . Bellee and V . Duchemin (4 vols., Le Mans, 1881–1893); Cahiers de doleances de 1789 Bans le See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department du Pas-de-See also:

• CALAIS

Calais, by H . Loriquet (2 vols., See also:

• ARRAS

Arras, 1891); Cahiers des paroisses et communautes du bailliage d'See also:

• AUTUN

Autun, by A . Charmasse (Autun, 1895) . New collections are printed from time to time . A more general collection of cahiers than any above named is given in vols. i.-vi. of the Archives perlementaires . The cahiers must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith, as they were influenced by certain See also:

• MODELS

models circulated at the time of the elections and by popular excitement, but they remain an authority of the utmost value and a mine of See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information as to old France . Reference should also be made to the See also:

• WORKS

works of travellers who visited France at the outbreak of the Revolution .

Among these See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

Young's Travels in France during the years 1787,1 788 and 1789 (2 vols., See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

Bury St See also:

• EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN (1828– )

Edmunds, 1792–1794) are peculiarly instructive . For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main authority is their Proces verbaux or See also:

• JOURNALS

Journals; those of the Constituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in 16 vols . ; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the Councils under the Directory in 99 vols . See also the Archives perlementaires edited by J . Mavidal and E . See also:

• LAURENT, FRANCOIS (1810–1887)

Laurent (Paris, 1867, and the following years) ; the Hisloire parlementaire de la Revolution, by P . J . B . See also:

• BUCHEZ, PHILIPPE JOSEPH BENJAMIN (1796-1865)

Buchez and P . C . Roux (Paris, 1838), and the Histoire de la Revolution See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par deux amis de la liberie (Paris, 1792–1803) . The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, were numerous .

They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate . The ablest of the Royalist journals was See also:

• MALLET (or MALLOCH), DAVID (?17o5–1765)
• MALLET, PAUL HENRI (173o–18o7)

Mallet du See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan's Mercure de France . See also:

• PAMPHLETS

Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands . Such pamphlets as See also:

• MOUNIER, JEAN JOSEPH (1758-18o6)

Mounier's Nouvelles Observations sur les Etals-Generaux de France and Sieyes's Qu'est-ce que le Tiers Etat had a notable influence on opinion . The richest collections of Revolution pamphlets are in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris and in the British Museum . The contemporary See also:

• MEMOIRS

memoirs, &c., already published are numerous and fresh ones are always coming forth . A few of the best known and most useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of See also:

• BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN (1736-1793)

Bailly, of Ferrieres, of See also:

• MALOUET, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON (1740-1814)

Malouet . The See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

Correspondence of Mirabeau with the See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count de la See also:

• MERCK, JOHANN HEINRICH (1741–1791)

Merck, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851), is especially valuable . See also:

• DUMONT
• DUMONT, ANDRE HUBERT (1809-1857)
• DUMONT, FRANCOIS (1751-1831)
• DUMONT, JEAN (d. 1726)
• DUMONT, PIERRE ETIENNE LOUIS (1759-1829)

Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau and the See also:

• DIARY

Diary and Letters of Gouverneur See also:

• MORRIS
• MORRIS [MORRISON], CLARA (1849– )
• MORRIS, GOUVERNEUR (1752–1816)
• MORRIS, JOHN (1810-1886)
• MORRIS, RICHARD (1833–1894)
• MORRIS, ROBERT (1734–1806)
• MORRIS, SIR LEWIS (1833–1907)
• MORRIS, WILLIAM (1834-1896)

Morris give the impressions of foreigners with peculiar advantages for observing . For the Legislative Assembly and the Convention the memoirs of Madame See also:

• ROLAND
• ROLAND, LEGEND OF

Roland, of See also:

• BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE (1773-1844)

Bertrand de Molleville, of See also:

• BARBAROUX, CHARLES JEAN MARIE (1767-1794)

Barbaroux, of See also:

• BUZOT, FRANCOIS NICOLAS LEONARD (176o-1794)

Buzot, of Louvet, of See also:

• DUMOURIEZ, CHARLES FRANCOIS (1739—1823)

Dumouriez are instructive . For the Directory the memoirs of Barras, of La Revelliere Lepeaux and of See also:

• THIBAUDEAU, CLAIR ANTOINE, COMTE (1765—1854)

Thibaudeau deserve mention . The memoirs of See also:

• LAFAYETTE

Lafayette are useful .

Those of Talleyrand are singularly barren, the result, no doubt, of deliberate suppression . The memoirs of the marquise de La Rochejacquelein are important for the war of La Vendee . The most notable Jacobins have seldom