See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular See also:

• LAT

Lat. focalia, from See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus, See also:

• HEARTH (a word which appears in various forms in several Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch haard, German Herd, in the sense of " floor ")

hearth, See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire)  , a See also:

• TERM

term applicable to all substances that can be usefully employed for the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat by See also:

• COMBUSTION (from the Lat. comburere, to burn up)

combustion . Any See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element or See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of elements susceptible of oxidation may under appropriate conditions be made to See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn; but only those that ignite at a moderate initial temperature and burn with See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative rapidity, and, what is practically of more importance, are obtainable in quantity at moderate prices, can fairly be regarded as fuels . The elementary substances that can be so classed are primarily See also:

• HYDROGEN [symbol H, atomic weight x-oo8 (0=16)]

hydrogen, See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur, while others finding more See also:

• SPECIAL

special applications are See also:

• SILICON [symbol Si, atomic weight 28.3 (0= 16)]

silicon, See also:

• PHOSPHORUS (Gr. 4ws, light, sPEpety, to bear)

phosphorus, and the more readily oxidizable metals, such as See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron, See also:

• MANGANESE (symbol Mn; atomic weight, 54.93 (0=16)], a metallic chemical element. Its dioxide (pyrolusite)

manganese, See also:

• ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27.0)

aluminium and See also:

• MAGNESIUM [symbol Mg, atomic weight 24.32 (0 = 16)]

magnesium . More important, however, than the elements are the carbohydrates or compounds of carbon, See also:

• OXYGEN (symbol 0, atomic weight 16)

oxygen and hydrogen, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the bulk of the natural fuels, See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat and See also:

• COAL

coal, as well as of their liquid and gaseous derivativescoal-See also:

• GAS

gas, coal-See also:

• TAR

tar, See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch, oil, &c., which have high values as See also:

• FUEL (O. Fr. feuaile, popular Lat. focalia, from focus, hearth, fire)

fuel . Carbon in the elementary form has its nearest representative in the carbonized fuels, See also:

• CHARCOAL

charcoal from wood and See also:

• COKE (a northern English word, possibly connected with " colk," core)
• COKE, SIR EDWARD (1552-1634)
• COKE, SIR JOHN (1563-1644)
• COKE, THOMAS (1747-1814)

coke from coal . Solid Fuels . Wood may be considered as having the following See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition when in the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air-dried See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state: Carbon, 39.6; hydro-wood. gen, 4.8; oxygen, 34.8; ash, 1.0; See also:

• WATER

water, 20 % . When it is freshly felled, the water may be from 18 to 50% . Air-dried or even See also:

• GREEN, A
• GREEN, ALEXANDER HENRY (1832—1896)
• GREEN, DUFF (1791—1875)
• GREEN, JOHN RICHARD (1837—1883)
• GREEN, MATTHEW (1696-1737)
• GREEN, THOMAS HILL (1836-1882)
• GREEN, VALENTINE (1739–1813)
• GREEN, WILLIAM HENRY (.1825–1900)

green wood ignites readily when a considerable See also:

• SURFACE

surface is exposed to the kindling See also:

• FLAME (Lat. flamma; the root flag- appears in flagrare, to burn, blaze, and Gr. d, XEryew)

flame, but in large masses with See also:

• REGULAR

regular or smooth surfaces it is often difficult to get it to burn . When previously torrefied or scorched by See also:

• HEATING

heating to a temperature of about zoo°, at which incipient charring is set up, it is exceedingly inflammable . The ends of imperfectly charred boughs from the charcoal heaps in this See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition are used in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and other large towns in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France for kindling purposes, under the name of fumerons . The inflammability, however, varies with the See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density,—the so-called hard See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods, See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak, See also:

• BEECH

beech and See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, taking See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire less readily than the softer, and, more especially, the coniferous varieties See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich in See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin .

The calorific See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of absolutely dry woods may as an average be taken at about 4000 See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units, and when air-dried, i.e. containing 25% of water, at 2800 to 3000 units . Their evaporative values, i.e. the quantities of water evaporated by unit See also:

• WEIGHT

weight, are 3.68 and 4'44• Wood being essentially a flaming fuel is admirably adapted for use with heat-receiving surfaces of large extent, such as loco-See also:

• MOTIVE (from Lat. movere, to move)

motive and marine boilers, and is also very clean in use . The See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of all cohesion in the cinders or unburnt carbonized See also:

• RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain)

residue causes a large amount of ignited particles to be projected from the See also:

• CHIMNEY (through the Fr. cheminee, from caminata, sc. camera, a Lat. derivative of caminus, an oven or furnace)

chimney, when a rapid See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught is used, unless special spark-catchers of See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire See also:

• GAUZE

gauze or some analogous contrivance are used . When burnt in open fireplaces the volatile products given off in the apartment on the first heating have an acrid penetrating odour, which is, however, very generally considered to be agreeable . Owing to the large amount of water See also:

• PRESENT

present, no very high temperatures can be obtained by the See also:

• DIRECT

direct combustion of wood, and to produce these for metallurgical purposes it is necessary to convert it previously either into charcoal or into inflammable gas . Peat includes a See also:

• GREAT

great number of substances of very unequal fuel value, the most recently formed spongy See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind Heat approximating in composition to wood, while the dense pitchy brown compact substance, obtained froth the bottom of bogs of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient formation, may be compared with See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite or even in some instances with coal . Unlike wood, how-ever, it contains incombustible See also:

• MATTER

matter in variable but large quantity, from 5 to 15% or even more . Much of this, when the amount is large, is often due to See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand mechanically intermixed; when air-dried the proportion of water is from 8 to 20% . When these constituents are deducted the average composition maybe stated to be—carbon, 52 to 66; hydrogen, 4.7 to 7.4; oxygen, 28 to 39; and See also:

• NITROGEN [symbol N., atomic weight 14.01, 0=16]

nitrogen, 1.5 to 3 % . Average air-dried peat may be taken as having a calorific value of 3000 to 3500 units, and when dried at roo° C., and with a minimum of ash (4 to 5 %), at about 5200 units, or from a See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter to one-third more than that of an equal weight of wood . The lighter and more spongy varieties of peat when air-dried are exceedingly inflammable, firing at a temperature of zoo° C.; the denser pulpy kinds ignite less readily when in the natural state, and often require a still higher temperature when prepared by pulping and See also:

• COMPRESSION

compression or partial carbonization . Most kinds burn with a red smoky flame, developing a very strong odour, which, however, has its admirers in the same way that wood See also:

• SMOKE (from O. Eng. smeocan, to smoke, reek, cf. Dutch meek, Ger. Schmauch, probably allied to Gr. vol9caiv)

smoke has .

This arises from the destructive See also:

• DISTILLATION (from the Lat. distillare, more correctly destillare, to drop or trickle down)

distillation of imperfectly carbonized organic matter . The ash, like that of wood, is light and powdery, except when much sand is present, when it is of a denser See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . Peat is principally found in high latitudes, on exposed high tablelands and treeless areas in more temperate climates, and in the valleys of slow-flowing See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers,—as in See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland, the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, the tableland of See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria, the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, and parts of the valleys of the See also:

• SOMME

Somme, See also:

• OISE

Oise and a few other rivers in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern France . A See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal objection to its use is its extreme bulk, which for equal evaporative effect is from 8 to 18 times that of coal . Various methods have been proposed, and adopted more or less successfully, for the purpose of increasing the density of raw peat by compression, either with or without pulping; the latter See also:

• PROCESS

process gives the heaviest products, but the improvement is scarcely sufficient to compensate for the cost . Lignite or brown coal is of intermediate character between peat and coal proper . The best kinds are undistinguishable in quality from See also:

• FREE

free-burning coals, and the lowest earthy Lignite. kinds are not equal to average peat . When freshly raised, the proportion of water may be from 45 to 50% and even more, which is reduced from 28 to 20% by exposure to dry air . .Most varieties, however, when fully dried, break up into See also:

• POWDER (through O. Fr. puldre, modern poudre, from Lat. pulvis, pulveris, dust)

powder, which considerably diminishes their utility as fuel, as they cannot be consolidated by coking . Lignite dust may, however, be compacted into serviceable blocks for burning, by pressure in See also:

• MACHINES

machines similar to those used for See also:

• BRICK (derived according to some etymologists from the Teutonic bricke, a disk or plate; but more authoritatively, through the French brique, originally a " broken piece," applied especially to bread, and so to clay, from the Teutonic brikan, to break)

brick-making, either in the wet state as raised from the mines or when See also:

• KILN (0. E. cylene, from the Lat. culina, a kitchen, cooking-stove)

kiln-dried at 200° C . This method was adopted to a very large extent in Prussian See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony . The calorific value varies between 3500 and 5000 units, and the evaporative See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor from 2.16 when freshly raised to 5.84 for the best kinds of lignite when perfectly dried .

Of the other natural fuels, apart from coal (q.v.), the most important is so-called See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable refuse, such as See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton stalks, brushwood, See also:

• STRAW

straw, and the woody residue of See also:

• SUGAR

sugar-See also:

• CANE

cane after the extraction of the saccharine juice known as other megasse or cane trash . These are extensively used in natural fuels . countries where wood and coal are scarce, usually for providing See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam in the manufactures where they arise, e.g. straw for See also:

• THRASHING, or THRESHING (from " to thrash," O. Eng. llerscan, cf. Ger. dreschen, Du. dorschen, &c.)

thrashing, cotton stalks for ploughing, irrigating, or working presses, and cane trash for boiling down sugar or See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving the cane See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill . According to J . See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

Head (Proc . Inst. of See also:

• CIVIL

Civil See also:

• ENGINEERS, MILITARY

Engineers, vol. xlviii. p . 75), the evaporative values of r lb of these different articles when burnt in a tubular See also:

• BOILER

boiler are—coal, 8 lb ; dry peat, 4 lb; dry wood, 3'58-3'52 lb; cotton stalks or megasse, 3.2-2.7 lb; straw, 2.46-2.3o lb . Owing to the siliceous nature of the ash of sraw, it is desirable to have a means of clearing the See also:

• GRATE (from Lat. crates, a hurdle)

grate bars from slags and clinkers at See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short intervals, and to use a steam See also:

• JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat)

jet to clear the tubes from similar deposits . The See also:

• COMMON

common fuel of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt is derived from the dung of camels and oxen, moulded into thin cakes, and dried in the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun . It has a very See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low heating power, and in burning gives off acrid ammoniacal smoke and vapour . Somewhat similar are the tan cakes made from spent tanners' bark, which are used to some extent in eastern France and in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany . They are made by moulding the spent bark into cakes, which are then slowly dried by exposure to the air .

Their effect is about See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to 8o and 30% of equal weights of wood and coal respectively . Sulphur, phosphorus and silicon, the other principal combustible elements, are only of limited application as fuels . The first is used in the See also:

• LIQUIDATION (i.e. making " liquid " or clear)

liquidation of sulphur-bearing rocks . The ore is piled into large heaps, which are ignited at the bottom, a certain proportion, from one-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth to one-third, of the sulphur content being sacrificed, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to raise the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass to a sufficient temperature to allow the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder to melt and run down to the See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin . Another application is in the so-called " pyritic smelting," where ores of See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper (q.v.) containing iron See also:

• PYRITES

pyrites, FeS2i are smelted with appropriate fluxes in a hot blast, without preliminary roasting, the sulphur and iron of the pyrites giving sufficient heat by oxidation to liquefy both slag and See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal . Phosphorus, which is of value from its low igniting point, receives its only application in the manufacture of See also:

• LUCIFER (d. 370/1)
• LUCIFER (the Latinized form of Gr. 4scwo'4 bpos, " light-bearer ")

lucifer matches . The high temperature produced by burning phosphorus is in See also:

• PART

part due to the product of combustion (phosphoric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid) being solid, and therefore there is less heat absorbed than would be the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with a gaseous product . The same effect is observed in a still more striking manner with silicon, which in the only special case of its application to the production of heat, namely, in the See also:

• BESSEMER
• BESSEMER, SIR HENRY (1813-1898)

Bessemer process of See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel-making, gives rise to an enormous increase of temperature in the metal, sufficient indeed to keep the iron melted . The See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute calorific value of silicon is See also:

• LOWER

lower than that of carbon, but the product of combustion (See also:

• SILICA

silica) being non-volatile at all See also:

• FURNACE

furnace temperatures, the whole of the heat See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed is available for heating the molten iron, instead of a considerable part being consumed in the See also:

• WORK

work of volatilization, as is the case with carbonic See also:

• OXIDE

oxide, which See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns to See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste in the air . Assay and Valuation of Carbonaceous Fuels.—The utility or value of a fuel depends upon two principal factors, namely, its calorific power and its calorific intensity or pyrometric effect, that Calorific is, the sensible temperature of the products of combustion . power . The first of these is See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant for any particular product of combustion independently of the method by which the burning is effected, whether by oxygen, air or a reducible metallic oxide .

It is most conveniently determined in the laboratory by measuring the heat evolved during the combustion of a given weight of the fuel . The method of See also:

• LEWIS, HENRY CARVILL
• LEWIS, JOHN FREDERICK (180 1876)
• LEWIS, MATTHEW GREGORY (1775-1818)
• LEWIS, MERIWETHER (1774-1809)
• LEWIS, SIR GEORGE CORNEWALL, BART

Lewis See also:

• THOMPSON
• THOMPSON, FRANCIS (1860-1907)
• THOMPSON, LAUNT (1833-1894)
• THOMPSON, SIR HENRY, BART
• THOMPSON, SIR JOHN SPARROW (1844-1894)
• THOMPSON, THOMAS PERONNET (1783-1869)
• THOMPSON, WILLIAM HEPWORTH (18ro–1886)

Thompson is one of the most useful . The calorimeter consists of a copper See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder in which a weighed quantity of coal intimately mixed with 10–12 parts of a mixture of 3 parts of See also:

• POTASSIUM [symbol K (from kalium), atomic weight 39.114 0=16)]

potassium chlorate and 1 of potassium nitrate is deflagrated under a copper case like a diving-See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell, placed at the bottom of a deep See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass See also:

• JAR

jar filled with a known weight of water . The mixture is fired by a fuse of See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

lamp-cotton previously soaked in a See also:

• NITRE

nitre See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution and dried . The gases produced by the combustion rising through the water are cooled, with a corresponding increase of temperature in the latter, so that the difference between the temperature observed before and after the experiment See also:

• MEASURES

measures the heat evolved . The See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument is so constructed that 30 grains (2 grammes) of coal are burnt in 29,010 grains of water, or in the proportion of I to 937, these See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers being selected that the observed rise of temperature in See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit degrees corresponds to the required evaporative value in pounds, subject only to a correction for the amount of heat absorbed by the mass of the instrument, for which a special coefficient is required and must be experimentally determined . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• BOMB

bomb calorimeter is also used . An approximate method is based upon the reduction of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead oxide by the carbon and hydrogen of the coal, the amount of lead reduced affording a measure of the oxygen expended, whence the heating power may be calculated, i part of pure carbon being capable of producing 341 times its weight of lead . The operation is performed by mixing the weighed See also:

• SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a doublet of " example ")

sample with a large excess of litharge in a crucible, and exposing it to a See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright red heat for a short See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . After cooling, the crucible is broken and the reduced See also:

• BUTTON (Fr. bouton, O. Fr. boton, apparently from the same root as bouter, to push)

button of lead is cleaned and weighed . The results obtained by this method are less accurate with coals containing much disposable hydrogen and iron pyrites than with those approximating to See also:

• ANTHRACITE (Gr. avOpaE, coal)

anthracite, as the heat equivalent of the hydrogen in excess of that required to form water with the oxygen. of the coal is calculated as carbon, while it is really about four times as great . Sulphur in iron pyrites also acts as a reducing See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent upon litharge, and increases the apparent effect in a similar manner .

The evaporative power of a coal found by the above methods, and also by calculating the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate calorific factors of the components as determined by the chemical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis, is always consider-ably above that obtained by actual combustion under a steam boiler, as in the latter case numerous See also:

• SOURCES

sources of loss, such as imperfect combustion of gases, loss of unburnt coal in cinders, &c., come into See also:

• PLAY

play, which cannot be allowed for in laboratory experiments . It is usual, therefore, to determine the value of a coal by the combustionof a weighed quantity in the furnace of a boiler, and measuring the amount of water evaporated by the heat developed . In a See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research upon the heating power and other properties of coal for See also:

• NAVAL

naval use, carried out by the German See also:

• ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF

admiralty, the results tabulated below were obtained with coals form different localities . The heats of combustion of elements and compounds will be found in most of the larger See also:

• WORKS

works on See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and chemical constants; a convenient See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series is given in the Annuaire du See also:

• BUREAU (a Fr. word from burel or bureau, a coarse cloth used for coverings)

Bureau See also:

• DES

des Longitudes, appearing in alternate years . The following figures for the principal fuel elements are taken from the issue for 1908; they are expressed in gramme " calories " or heat units, signifying the weight of water in grammes that can be raised 1 ° C. in temperature by the combustion of 1 gramme of the substance, when it is oxidized to the condition shown in the second See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column: Element . Product of Combustion . Calories . Hydrogen S Water, See also:

• H2O (combined)

H2O, condensed to liquid 34,500 as vapour 29,650 Carbon— . Carbon dioxide, See also:

• CO2

CO2 . 7,868 See also:

• DIAMOND

Diamond See also:

• GRAPHITE

Graphite . 7,900 Amorphous 8,133 Silicon Silicon dioxide, SiO2 6,414 Amorphous Crystallized 6,570 Phosphorus Phosphoric pentoxide, P2Oe 5,958 Sulphur . Sulphur dioxide, SO2, gaseous 2,165 The results may also be expressed in terms of the atomic equivalent of the combustible by multiplying the above values by the atomic weight of the substance, 12 for carbon, 28 for silicon, &c .

In all fuels containing hydrogen the calorific value as found by the calorimeter is higher than that obtainable under working conditions by an amount equal to the latent heat of volatilization of water which reappears as heat when the vapour is condensed, though under ordinary conditions of use the vapour passes away uncondensed . This gives rise to the distinction of higher and lower calorific values for such substances, the latter being those generally used in practice . The See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences for the more important See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound gaseous fuels are as follows: Higher . Lower . See also:

• ACETYLENE

Acetylene, C2H2 11,920 11,500 See also:

• ETHYLENE, or ETHENE, C2H4

Ethylene, C2H4 11,88o 11,120 Methane, See also:

• CH4

CH4 . 13,240 11,910 Carbon monoxide, CO 2,440 2,440 The calorific intensity or pyrometric effect of any particular fuel depends upon so many variable elements that it cannot be deter-See also:

• MINED

mined except by actual experiment . The older method Calorific was to multiply the weight of the products of combustion intensity. by their specific neats, but this gave untrustworthy results as a See also:

• RULE

rule, on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of two circumstances—the great increase in specific heat at high temperatures in compound gases such as water and carbon dioxide, and their instability when heated to i800° or 2000° . At such temperatures See also:

• DISSOCIATION

dissociation to a notable extent takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, especially with the latter substance, which is also readily. reduced to carbon monoxide when brought in contact with carbon at a red heat—a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change which is attended with a large heat absorption . This effect is higher with soft kinds of carbon, such as charcoal or soft coke, than with dense coke, gas See also:

• RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back)

retort carbon or graphite . These latter substances, therefore, are used when an intense See also:

• LOCAL

local heat is required, as for example, in the Deville furnace, to which air is supplied under pressure . Such a method is, however, only of very special application, the ordinary method being to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply air to the fire in excess of that required to burn the fuel to prevent the reduction of the carbon dioxide . The See also:

• VOLUME

volume of flame, however, is increased by inert gas, and there is a proportionate diminution of the heating effect .

Under the most favourable conditions, when the air employed has been previously raised to a high temperature and pressure, the highest attainable flame temperature from carbonaceous fuel seems to be about 2100°–2300° C.; this is realized in the bright spots or " eyes " of the tuyeres of blast furnaces . Very much higher temperatures may be reached when the products of combustion are not volatile, and the operation can be effected by using the fuel and oxidizing agent in the proportions exactly Slag See also:

• LEFT

left Ashes in See also:

• SOOT (0. Eng. sot, cf. Icel. sot, Dan. sod; possibly from root sed, to sit)

Soot in Water ova- in Grate . Ashpit . Flues. poraof by I lb of Coal Westphalian gas coals . 0.33–6.42 2.83– 6.53 0.32–0'46 6.60—7.45 lb Do. bituminous coals 0.98–9.10 1.97– 9.63 0.24–0.88 7.30-8.66 Do. dry coals . 1.93–5.70 4.37–1o.63 0.24–0.48 7.03–8.51 Silesian coals . . 0.92–1.30 3.15– 3.50 0.24–0.30 6.73–7.10 Welsh steam coals 1.20–4.07 4.07 0.32 8'41 See also:

• NEWCASTLE
• NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF

Newcastle coals . 1.92 2'57 0.35 7.28 Calorific Value . required for perfect combustion and intimately mixed . These conditions are met in the " Thermit " process of See also:

• GOLDSCHMIDT, HERMANN (1802-1866)

Goldschmidt, where finely divided aluminium is oxidized by the oxide of some similar metal, such as iron, manganese or See also:

• CHROMIUM (symbol Cr. atomic weight 52.1)

chromium, the reaction being started by a primer of magnesium and See also:

• BARIUM (symbol Ba, atomic weight 137'37 [0=16])

barium peroxide . The reaction is so rapidly effected that there is an enormous rise in temperature, estimated to be 5400° F . (3000° C.), which is sufficient to melt the most refractory metals, such as chromium .

The slag consists of alumina which crystallizes in the forms of See also:

• CORUNDUM

corundum and See also:

• RUBY (Lat. rubeus, red)

ruby, and is utilized as an abrasive under the name of corubin . The chemical examination includes the determination of (I) moisture, (2) ash, (3) coke, (4) volatile matter, (5) fixed carbon in coke, (6) sulphur, (7) See also:

• CHLORINE (symbol Cl, atomic weight 35`46 (0=16)

chlorine, (8) phosphorus . Moisture is deter-mined by noting the loss in weight when a sample is heated at See also:

• I000

I000 for about one See also:

• HOUR

hour . The ash is determined by heating a sample in a muffle furnace until all the combustible matter has been burnt off . The ash, which generally contains silica, oxides of the alkaline earths, ferric oxide (which gives the ash a red See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour), sulphur, &c., is analysed by the ordinary See also:

• GRAVIMETRIC

gravimetric methods . The determination of coke is very important on account of the conclusions concerning the nature of the coal which it permits to be See also:

• DRAWN

drawn . A sample is finely powdered and placed in a covered See also:

• PORCELAIN

porcelain crucible, which is surrounded by an See also:

• OUTER

outer one, the space between them being packed with small coke . The crucibles are heated in a See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind furnace for t to if See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours, then allowed to cool, the inner crucible removed, and the coke weighed . The coke may be (I) pulverulent, (2) slightly fritted, (3) spongy and swelled, (4) compact . Pulverulent cokes indicate a non-caking bituminous coal, rich in oxygen if the amount be below 60%, but if the amount be very much less it generally indicates a lignite; if the amount be above 8o % it indicates an anthracite containing little oxygen or hydrogen . A fritted coke indicates a slightly coking coal, while the spongy See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance points to a highly coking coal which has been partly fused in the furnace . A compact coke is yielded by See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good coking coals, and is usually large in amount .

The volatile matters are determined as the loss of weight on coking less the amount of moisture . The " fixed carbon " is the carbon retained in the coke, which contains in addition the ash already determined . The fixed carbon is therefore the difference between the coke and the ash, and may be determined from these figures; or it may be determined directly by burning off the coke in a muffle and noting the loss in weight . Sulphur may be present as (I) organic sulphur, (2) as iron pyrites or other sulphides, (3) as the sulphates of See also:

• CALCIUM [symbol Ca, atomic weight 40.0 (o= x6)]

calcium, aluminium and other metals; but the amount is generally so small that only the See also:

• TOTAL

total sulphur is determined . This is effected by heating a mixture of the fuel with See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime and See also:

• SODIUM [symbol Na, from Lat. natrium; atomic weight 23.00 (0=16)]

sodium carbonate in a porcelain dish to redness in a muffle until all the carbonaceous matter has been burnt off . The residue, which contains the sulphur as calcium sulphate, is transferred to a See also:

• BEAKER (Scottish bicker, Lat. bicarium, Ger. Becher, a drinking-bowl)

beaker containing water to which a little See also:

• BROMINE (symbol Br, atomic weight 79-96)

bromine has been added . Hydrochloric acid is carefully added, the liquid filtered and the residue washed . To the filtrate See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia is added, and then barium chloride, which precipitates the sulphur as barium sulphate . Sulphur existing in the form of sulphates may be removed by washing a sample with boiling water and determining the sulphuric acid in the solution . The washed sample is then fused in the usual way to determine the proportion of sulphur existing as iron pyrites . The distinction between sulphur present as sulphate and sulphide is of importance in the examination of coals intended for iron smelting, as the sulphates of the earthy metals are reduced by the gases of the furnace to sulphides, which pass into the slag without affecting the quality of the iron produced, while the sulphur of the metallic sulphides in the ash acts prejudicially upon the metal . Coals for gas-making should contain little sulphur, as the gases produced in the combustion are noxious and have very corrosive properties .

Chlorine is rarely determined, but when present in quantity it corrodes copper and See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass boiler tubes, with which consequently chlorine-bearing coals cannot be used . The element is determined by fusing with soda lime in a muffle, dissolving the residue in water and precipitating with See also:

• SILVER

silver nitrate . Phosphorus is determined in the ash by fusing it with a mixture of sodium and potassium See also:

• CARBONATES

carbonates, extracting the residue with hydrochloric acid, and twice evaporating to dryness with the same acid . The residue is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, a few drops of ferric chloride added, and then ammonia in excess . The precipitate of ferric phosphate is then treated as in the ordinary estimation of See also:

• PHOSPHATES

phosphates . If it be necessary to determine the absolute amount of carbon and hydrogen in a fuel, the dried sample is treated with copper oxide as in the ordinary estimation of these elements in organic compounds . (H . B.) Liquid Fuel . Vegetable oil is not used for fuel except for laboratory purposes, partly because its constituent parts are less adaptable for combustion under the conditions necessary for steam-raising, but chiefly because of the commercial difficulty of producing it with sufficient See also:

• ECONOMY

economy to compete with See also:

• MINERAL

mineral fuel either solid or liquid . The use of See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum as fuel had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been recognized as ascientific possibility, and some attempts had been made to adopt it in practice upon a commercial See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, but the insufficiency, and still more the irregularity, of the supplies prevented it from coming into See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical use to any important extent until about 1898, when discoveries of oil specially adapted by chemical composition for fuel purposes changed the aspect of the situation, These discoveries of special oil were made first in See also:

• BORNEO

Borneo and later in See also:

• TEXAS

Texas, and experience in treating the See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils from both localities has shown that while not less adapted to produce kerosene or See also:

• ILLUMINATING

illuminating oil, they are better adapted to produce fuel oil than either the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian or the Pennsylvanian products . Texas oil did not hold its place in the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market for long, because the influx of water into the See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

wells lowered their yield, but discoveries of fuel oil in See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico have come later and will help to maintain the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of the See also:

• WORLD

world's supply, although this is still a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere fraction of the assured supply of coal . With regard to the chemical properties of petroleum, it is not necessary to say more in the present place than that the lighter and more volatile constituents, known commercially as See also:

• NAPHTHA

naphtha and See also:

• BENZENE, C6H6

benzene, must be removed by distillation in order to leave a residue composed principally of See also:

• HYDROCARBONS

hydrocarbons which, while containing the necessary carbon for combustion, shall be sufficiently free from volatile qualities to avoid premature ignition and consequent danger of See also:

• EXPLOSION

explosion .

Attempts have been made to use crude oil for fuel purposes, and these have had some success in the neighbourhood of the oil wells and under boilers of unusually good See also:

• VENTILATION (Lat. ventilare, from ventus, wind)

ventilation both as regards their chimneys and the surroundings of their stokeholds; but for reasons both of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and of safety it is not desirable to use crude oil where some distillation is possible . The more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete the process of distillation, and the consequent removal of the volatile constituents, the higher the flash-point, and the more turgid and viscous is the fuel resulting; and if the process is carried to an extreme, the residue or fuel becomes difficult to ignite by the ordinary process of spraying or atomizing mechanically at the moment immediately preceding combustion . The proportions which have been found to work efficiently in practice are as follows: Carbon . . 88•oo % Hydrogen . . 10.75 Oxygen 1.25 °/ 0 Total . . too The See also:

• STANDARDS

standards of safety for liquid fuel as determined by flash-point are not yet finally settled, and are changing from time to time . The See also:

• BRITISH

British admiralty require a flash-point of 270 F., and to this high See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard, and the consequent viscosity of the fuel used by vessels in the British. See also:

• FLEET

fleet, may partly be attributed the low See also:

• RATE

rate of combustion that was at first found possible in them . The German admiralty have fixed a flash-point of 187° F., and have used oil of this standard with perfect safety, and at the same time with much higher measure of evaporative See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty than has been attained in British See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-vessels . In the British See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine See also:

• LLOYD, EDWARD (1845— )
• LLOYD, WILLIAM (1627–1717)
• LLOYD, WILLIAM WATKISS (1813–1893)

Lloyd's See also:

• REGISTER

Register has permitted fuel with a flash-point as low as 150° F. as a minimum, and no harm has resulted . The British See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

Trade, the See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government which controls the safety of passenger vessels, has fixed a higher standard upon the basis of a minimum of 185° . In the case of locomotives the flash-point as a standard of safety is of less importance than in the case of stationary or marine boilers, because the storage is more open, and the ventilation, both of the storage tanks and the boilers during combustion, much more perfect than in any other class of steam-boilers . The process of refining by distillation is also necessary to reduce two impurities which greatly retard storage and combustion, i.e. water and sulphur .

Water is found in all crude petroleum as it issues from the wells, and sulphur exists in important quantities in oil from the Texas wells . Its removal was at first found very expensive, but there no longer exists difficulty in this respect, and large quantities of petroleum fuel practically free from sulphur are now regularly exported from Texas to New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York and to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . Water mixed with fuel is in intimate See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical relation, and ,frequently so remains in considerable quantities even after the process of distillation . It is in fact so thoroughly mixed as to form an emulsion . The effect of feeding such a mixture into a furnace is extremely injurious, because the water must be decomposed chemically into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen, thus absorbing a large quantity of heat which would otherwise be utilized for evaporation . Water also directly delays combustion by producing from the jet a long, dull, red flame instead of a short bright, See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white flame, and the process of combustion, which should take place by See also:

• VAPORIZATION

vaporization of the oil near the furnace mouth, is postponed and transferred to the upper part of the combustion-See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, the tubes, and even the See also:

• BASE

base of the chimney, producing loss of heat and, injury to the boiler structure . The most effective means of See also:

• RIDDING, GEORGE (1828-1904)

ridding the fuel of this dangerous impurity is by heat and See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement . The coefficients of expansion of water and oil by heat are substantially different, and a moderate rise of temperature therefore separates the particles and precipitates the water, which is easily drawn off—leaving the oil available for use . The heating and precipitation are usually performed upon a patented See also:

• SYSTEM

system of settling tanks and heating apparatus known as the Flannery-See also:

• BOYD, ANDREW KENNEDY HUTCHISON (1825—1899)
• BOYD, ROBERT BOYD, LORD (d. c. 1470)
• BOYD, ZACHARY (1585?-1653)

Boyd system, which has proved itself indispensable for the successful use at See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea of petroleum fuel containing any large proportion of water . The laboratory and mechanical use of petroleum for fuel has already been referred to, but it was not until the See also:

• YEAR

year 187o that petroleum was applied upon a wider and commercial scale . In the course of distillation of Russian crude petroleum for the production of kerosene or lamp oil, large quantities of refuse were produced—known by the Russian name of astatki—and these were found an incumbrance and useless for any commercial purpose . To a Russian oil-refiner gifted with mechanical See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct and the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius for invention occurred the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of utilizing the waste product as fuel by spraying or atomizing it with steam, so that, the thick and sluggish fluid being broken up into particles, the air necessary for combustion could have free See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access to it .

The earliest apparatus for this purpose was a See also:

• SIMPLE

simple piece of gas-See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube, into which the thick oil was fed; by another connexion steam at high pressure was admitted to an inner and smaller tube, and, the end of the tube nearest to the furnace being open, the pressure of the steam blew the oil into the furnace, and by its velocity See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke it up into spray . The apparatus worked with success from the first . Experience pointed out the proper proportionate sizes for the inlets of steam and oil, the proper pressure for the steam, and the proportionate sizes for the orifices of See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to the furnaces, as well as the sizes of air-openings and best arrangements of fire-bricks in the furnaces themselves; and what had been a waste product now became a by-product of great value . Practically all the steam power in See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, both for factories and See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of the inland seas and rivers, is now raised from astatki fuel . In the Far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, including See also:

• BURMA

Burma and parts of See also:

• CHINA

China and See also:

• JAPAN

Japan, the use of liquid fuel spread rapidly during the years 'Soo, I900 and 1901, owing entirely to the development of the Borneo oil-See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields by the enterprise of See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• MARCUS

Marcus See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel and the large British See also:

• CORPORATION (from Lat. corporare, to form into a body, corpus, corporis)

corporation known as the See also:

• SHELL
• SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scyll, cf. Du. sceel, shell, Goth. skalja, tile; the word means originally a thin flake,. cf. Swed. skalja, to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root meaning to cleave, divide, separate)

Shell Transport and Trading See also:

• COMPANY

Company, of which he is the head . This corporationhas since amalgamated with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Company controlling the extensive wells in Dutch Borneo, and together they supply large quantities of liquid fuel for use in the Far East . In the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America liquid fuel is not only used for practically the whole of the manufacturing and See also:

• LOCOMOTIVE

locomotive purposes of the state of Texas, but factories in New York, and a still larger number in See also:

• CALIFORNIA
• CALIFORNIA, LOWER (Baja California)
• CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

California, are now discarding the use of coal and adopting petroleum, because it is more economical in its See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption and also more easily handled in transit, and saves nearly all the labour of stoking . So far the supplies for China and Japan have been exported from Borneo, but the discoveries of new oil-fields in California, of a character specially adapted for-fuel, have encouraged the belief that it may be possible to supply See also:

• CHILE, or CHILI (derived, it is said, from the Quichua chin , cold, or tchili, snow)

Chile and See also:

• PERU
• PERU (apparently from Biru, a small river on the west coast of Colombia, where Pizarro landed)

Peru and other South See also:

• AMERICAN

American countries, where coal is extremely expensive, with Californian fuel; and it has also found its way across the Pacific to Japan . There are believed to be large deposits in West See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa, but in the meantime the only sources of supply to those parts of Africa where manufacture is progressing, i.e . South Africa and Egypt, are the oil-fields of Borneo and Texas, from which the import has well begun, from Texas to See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria via the Mediterranean, and from Borneo to Cape See also:

• TOWN

Town via See also:

• SINGAPORE (Malay, Singapiira, i.e. " The City of the Lion")

Singapore . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, notwithstanding the fact that there exist the finest coal-fields in the world, there has been a surprising development of the use of petroleum as fuel . The Great Eastern railway adapted 120 locomotive engines to its use, and these ran with regularity and success both on See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express passenger and goods trains until the increase in See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price due to short supply compelled a return to coal fuel .

The See also:

• LONDON

London, See also:

• BRIGHTON

Brighton & South See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

Coast railway also began the See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation of some of their locomotive engines, but discontinued the use of liquid fuel from the same cause . Several large firms of contractors and See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement manufacturers, chiefly on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the See also:

• THAMES

Thames, made the same adaptations which proved mechanically successful, but were not continued when the price of liquid fuel increased with the increased demand . The See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief factors of economy are the greater calorific value of oil than coal (about 16 lb of water per lb of oil fuel evaporated from a temperature of 2120 F.), not only in laboratory practice, but in actual use on a large scale, and the saving of labour both in transit from the source of supply to the place of use and in the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of stoking the furnaces . The use of See also:

• CRANES (so called from the resemblance to the long neck of the bird, cf. Gr. 'y pavor, Fr. grue)

cranes, See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand labour with shovels, wagons and locomotives, Economy horses and carts, is unavoidable for the transit of f°u L coal; and labour to See also:

• TRIM

trim the coal, to stoke it when under combustion, and to handle the residual ashes, are all indispensable to steam-raising by coal . On the other hand, a system of pipes and pumps, and a limited quantity of skilled Progress of liquid fuel . labour to See also:

• MANAGE

manage them, is all that is necessary for the transit and combustion of petroleum fuel; and it is certain that even in England will be found places which, from topographical and other circumstances, will use petroleum more economically than coal as fuel for manufacturing purposes under reasonable conditions of price for the fuel . The theoretical calorific value of oil fuel is more nearly realized in practice than the theoretical calorific value of coal, because the facilities for complete combustion, due to the artificial admixture of the air by the atomizing process, are greater in the case of oil than coal, and for this See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason, among others, the practical evaporative results are proportionately higher with liquid fuel . In some cases the work done in a steam-See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine by 2 tons of coal has been performed by r ton of oil fuel, but in others the proportions have been as 3 to 2, and these latter can be safely relied on in practice as a minimum . This saving, combined with the savings of labour and transit already explained, will in the near future make the use of liquid fuel compulsory, except in places so near to coal-fields that the cost of coal becomes sufficiently low to counterbalance the savings in weight of fuel consumed and in labour in handling it . In some locomotives on the Great Eastern railway the consumption of oil and coal for the same development of See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse-power was as 17 lb oil is to 35 lb coal; all, however, did not realize so high a result . The mechanical apparatus for applying petroleum to steam-raising in locomotives is very simple . The space in the See also:

• TENDER

tender usually occupied by coal is closed up by steel-plating closelyriveted and tested, so as to form a storage tank .

From this tank a feed-See also:

• PIPE

pipe is led to a burner of the combined steam-and-oil type already indicated, and this burner is so arranged Liquid as to enter a short distance inside the furnace fuel in mouth . The ordinary fire-bars are covered with a thin loco-layer of coal, which starts the ignition in the first motives. place, and the whole apparatus is ready for work . The burner best adapted for locomotive practice is the See also:

• HOLDEN, HUBERT ASHTON (1822-1896)
• HOLDEN, SIR ISAAC, BART

Holden Burner (fig . I), which was used on the Great Eastern railway . The steam-pipe is connected at A, the oil-pipe at B, and the hand- wheels C and D are for the See also:

• ADJUSTMENT (from late Lat. ad juxtare, derived from juxta, near, but early confounded with a supposed derivation from justus, right)

adjustment of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal orifices according to the rate of combustion required . The nozzle E is directed towards the furnace, and the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring FF, supplied by the small pipe G and the by-pass See also:

• VALVE (Lat. valva, a leaf of a double or folding door, allied to volvere, to roll, as of a door on its hinges)

valve H, projects a series of steam jets into the furnace, See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the injections of atomized fuel, and so induces an artificial inrush of air for the promotion of combustion . This type of burner has also been tried on stationary boilers and on board See also:

• SHIP

ship . It works well, although the great consumption of steam by the supplementary ring is a difficulty at sea, where the water lost by the consumption of steam cannot easily be made up, Although the application of the new fuel for See also:

• LAND

land and locomotive boilers has already been large, the practice at sea has Liquid fuel been far more extensive . The reason at sea . is chiefly to be found in the fact that although the sources of supply are at a distance from Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, yet they are in countries to whose neighbourhood British steamships regularly trade, and in which British naval squadrons are regularly stationed, so that the advantages of adopting liquid fuel have been more immediate and the economy more direct . The certainty of continuous supply of the fuel and the wide See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of storage stations have so altered the conditions that the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of the new fuel for marine purposes becomes a matter of urgency for the statesman, the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant and the engineer . None of these can afford to neglect the new conditions, lest they be noted and acted upon by their competitors .

Storage for supply now exists at a number of sea ports: London, See also:

• BARROW
• BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock)
• BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677)
• BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848)

Barrow, See also:

• SOUTHAMPTON
• SOUTHAMPTON, EARL OF
• SOUTHAMPTON, HENRY WRIOTHESLEY, 3RD EARL OF (1J73—1624)

Southampton, See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam, See also:

• COPENHAGEN (Danish Kjobenhavn)

Copenhagen, New See also:

• ORLEANS
• ORLEANS, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1391-1465)
• ORLEANS, DUKES OF
• ORLEANS, FERDINAND PHILIP LOUIS CHARLES HENRY, DUKE OF (1810-1842)
• ORLEANS, HENRI, PRINCE
• ORLEANS, HENRIETTA, DUCHESS
• ORLEANS, JEAN BAPTISTE GASTON, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE JOSEPH
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ROBERT, DUKE
• ORLEANS, LOUIS PHILIPPE, DUKE OF (1725–1785)
• ORLEANS, LOUIS, DUKE OF (1372–1407)
• ORLEANS, PHILIP I
• ORLEANS, PHILIP II

Orleans, See also:

• SAVANNAH

Savannah, New York, See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, Singapore, Hong See also:

• KONG

Kong, See also:

• MADRAS

Madras, See also:

• COLOMBO

Colombo, See also:

• SUEZ

Suez, See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg, See also:

• PORT

Port See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur, See also:

• RANGOON

Rangoon, See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta, Bombay, Alexandria, See also:

• BANGKOK

Bangkok, See also:

• SAIGON

Saigon, See also:

• PENANG (Pulau Pinang, i.e. Areca-nut Island),

Penang, See also:

• BATAVIA

Batavia, See also:

• SURABAYA (Dutch Soerabaja)

Surabaya, See also:

• AMOY

Amoy, See also:

• SWATOW (also Shan`tow)

Swatow, See also:

• FUCHOW

Fuchow, See also:

• SHANGHAI

Shanghai, See also:

• HANKOW (" Mouth of the Han ")

Hankow, See also:

• SYDNEY

Sydney, See also:

• MELBOURNE
• MELBOURNE, WILLIAM LAMB, 2ND VISCOUNT (1779-1848)

Melbourne, See also:

• ADELAIDE
• ADELAIDE (Ger. Adelheid) (931-999)

Adelaide, See also:

• ZANZIBAR

Zanzibar, See also:

• MOMBASA

Mombasa, See also:

• YOKOHAMA

Yokohama, Kobe and See also:

• NAGASAKI

Nagasaki; also in South See also:

• AFRICAN

African and South American ports . The British admiralty have undertaken experiments with liquid fuel at sea, and at the same time investigations of the t { tl Strom Jacket 7filir Pipe 4"F11 3' Delirerylb aft cohPerdam 5atndn9P4e - 4" Juice *Ire A — r"-;r'~i'-131.-• ~ ~ rte- _ ?~~rairenFtrBBrr ... FUEL 279 efficiency based on the thickest See also:

• ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH (1832-1901)

armour, the heaviest and most numerous guns, the highest maximum See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed, and, last and not least, the greatest range of effective See also:

• ACTION

action based upon the maximum supplies of fuel, provisions and other consumable stores that the ship can carry . Now, if by changing the type of fuel it be possible to reduce its weight by 30% , and to abolish the stokers, who are usually more than See also:

• HALF

half the ship's company, the weight saved will be represented not merely by the fuel, but by the consumable stores otherwise necessary for the stokers . Conversely, the See also:

• RADIUS

radius of effective action of the ship will be doubled as regards consumable stores if the See also:

• CREW (sometimes explained as a sea term of Scandinavian origin, cf. O. Icel. kris, a swarm or crowd, but now regarded as a shortened form of accrue, accrewe, used in the 16th century in the sense of a reinforcement, O. Fr. acreue, from accrofire, to grow,
• CREW, NATHANIEL CREW, 3RD BARON (1633–1721)

crew be halved, and will be increased by 50% if the same weight of fuel be carried in the form of liquid instead of coal . In space the gain by using oil fuel is still greater, and 36 cubic feet of oil as stored are equal in practical calorific value to 67 cubic feet of coal according to the.See also:

• ALLOWANCE (from "allow,' derived through 0. Fr. alouer from the two Lat. origins adlaudare, to praise, and allocare, to assign a place; so that the English word combined the general idea of "assigning with approval")

allowance usual for ship's bunkering . On the other hand, coal has been relied upon, when placed in the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side bunkers of unarmoured See also:

• SHIPS

ships, as a See also:

• PROTECTION

protection against shot and shell, and this See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage, if it really exists, could not be claimed in regard to liquid fuel . See also:

• RECENT

Recent experiments in coaling warships at sea have not been very successful, as the least See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather has prevented the safe transmission of coal bags from the See also:

• COLLIER, ARTHUR (1680-1732)
• COLLIER, JEREMY (1650-1726)
• COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE (1789–1883)

collier to the ship . The same difficulty does not exist for oil fuel, which has been pumped through flexible tubing from one ship to the other even in comparatively rough weather . Smokelessness, so important a feature of sea See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy, has not always been attained by liquid fuel, but where the combustion is complete, by reason of suitable furnace arrangements and careful management, there is no smoke . The great See also:

• DRAWBACK

drawback, however, to the use of liquid fuel in fast small vessels is the confined space allotted to the boilers, such confinement being unavoidable in view of the high power concentrated in a small See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

hull . The British admiralty's experiments, however, have gone far to solve the problem, and the quantity of oil which can be consumed by forced draught in confined boilers now more nearly equals the quantity of coal consumed under similar conditions .

All recent vessels built for the British See also:

• NAVY

navy are so constructed that the spaces between their See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double bottoms are oil-tight and capable of storing liquid fuel in the tanks so formed . Most recent See also:

• BATTLE

battle-ships and cruisers have also liquid fuel furnace fittings, and in 1910 it already appeared probable that the use of oil fuel in war-ships would rapidly develop . In view of recent accusations of insufficiency of coal storage in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign naval depots, by reason of the allegation that coal so stored quickly perishes, it is interesting to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that liquid fuel may be stored in tanks for an indefinite time without any deterioration whatever . In the case of merchant steamers large progress has also been made . The Shell Transport and Trading Company have twenty-one vessels successfully navigating in all parts of the Advanworld and using liquid fuel . The Hamburg-American taxes in Steamship Company have four large vessels similarly merchant fitted for oil fuel, which, however, differ in furnace ships. arrangements, as will be hereafter described, although using coal when the fluctuation of the market renders that the more economical fuel . One of the large American transatlantic lines is adopting liquid fuel, and See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French, German, Danish and American mercantile vessels are also beginning to use it in considerable amounts . In the case of very large passenger steamers, such as those of 20 knots and upwards in the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic trade, the saving in cost of fuel is trifling compared with the advantage arising from the greater weight and space available for See also:

• FREIGHT, (pronounced like " weight "; derived from the Dutch vracht or vrecht, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now only as an adjective= " laden ")

freight . Adopting a basis of 3 to 2 as between coal consumption and oil consumption, there is an increase of r000 tons of dead weight See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo in even a possibility of supply from sources within the regions of the British See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . There is an enormous supply of shale under the north-eastern counties of England, but no oil that can be pumped —still less oil with a pressure above it so as' to " gush " like the wells in America—and the only sources of liquid supply under the British See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag appear to be in Burma and See also:

• TRINIDAD

Trinidad . The Borneo ~i-^-/ - .. fields are not under British See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, although developed entirely by British See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital .

The See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian admiralty have fitted several large warships with boiler apparatus to burn petroleum . The German admiralty are regularly using liquid fuel on the China station . The Dutch navy have fitted coal fuel and liquid fuel furnaces in combination, so that the smaller See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers required h Advantages in warships . may be developed by coal alone, and the larger powers by supplementing coal fuel with oil fuel . The speeds of some vessels of the destroyer type have by this means been accelerated nearly two knots . The questions which govern the use of fuel in warships are more largely those of strategy and fighting efficiency than economy of evaporation . Indeed, the cost of construct- See also:

• ING

ing and maintaining in fighting efficiency a See also:

• MODERN

modern warship is so great that the utmost use strategically must be obtained from the See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel, and in this compari- son the cost of fuel is relatively so small an See also:

• ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning " also," " likewise ")

item that its increase or decrease may be considered almost a negligible quantity . The desideratum in a warship is to obtain the greatest fighting ships, whilst considerable additional speed is obtainable . The cost of the See also:

• INSTALLATION

installation, however, is very considerable, as it includes not only burners and pipes for the furnaces, but also the construction of oil-tight tanks, with pumps and numerous valves and pipe connexions . Fig . 2 shows a burner of Rusden and Eeles' patent as generally used on board ships' for the purpose of injecting the oil . A is a movable cap holding the packing B, which renders the See also:

• ANNULAR, ANNULATE

annular spindle M oil and steam tight .

E is the outer casing containing the steam jacket from which the steam, after being fed through the steam-supply pipe G, passes into the annular space surrounding the spindle P . It will be seen that if the spindle P be travelled inwards by turning the handle N, the orifice at the nozzle RR will be opened so as to allow the steam to flow out radially . If at the same time the annular spindle M be drawn inwards by revolving the handle L, the oil which passes through the supply pipe F will also have emission at RR, and, coming in contact with the outflowing steam, will be Ta .ae~.g~~k s... see[.+ ... Seen e1h,See also:

• EWE

ewe.E:3ew» 6$ua '////O/// . r7F1~ .... 'to rA ie y W~ f d~ i ,....BB.MB. rwh . . . /mnMmM/knpb.vgwj6nb ~I .