NUMA See also:

• DENIS (DIoNysms), SAINT
• DENIS, JOHANN NEPOMUK COSMAS MICHAEL (1729-1800)

DENIS FUSTEL DE COULANGES (1830–1889); See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French historian, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris on the 18th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 183o, of See also:

• BRETON, BRITTON
• BRETON, JULES ADOLPHE

Breton descent. After studying at the Ecole Normale Superieure he was sent to the French school at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens in 1853, directed some excavations in  See also:

• CHIOS

Chios, and wrote an See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island . After his return he filled various educational offices, and took his See also:

• DOCTOR (Lat. for " teacher ")

doctor's degree with two theses, Quid Vestae cult us in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit and Polybe, ou la Grece conquise See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par See also:

• LES

les Romains (1858) . In these See also:

• WORKS

works his distinctive qualities were already revealed . His See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute knowledge of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman institutions, coupled with his See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low estimate of the conclusions of contemporary scholars, led him to go See also:

• DIRECT

direct to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original texts, which he read without See also:

• POLITICAL

political or religious See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias . When, however, he had succeeded in extracting from the See also:

• SOURCES

sources a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that seemed to him clear and See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, he attached himself to it as if to the truth itself, employing See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic of the most penetrating, subtle and even paradoxical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character in his See also:

• DEDUCTION (from Lat. deducere, to take or lead from or out of, derive)

deduction of the logical consequences . From 186o to 1870 he was See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of See also:

• HISTORY

history at the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of letters at See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, where he had a brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence exercised by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of classical and Germanic antiquities . It was at Strassburg that he published his remarkable See also:

• VOLUME

volume La Cite See also:

• ANTIQUE (Lat. antiquus, old)

antique (1864), in which he showed forcibly the See also:

• PART

part played by See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion in the political and social See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . Although his making religion the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor of this evolution was a perversion of the historical facts, the See also:

• BOOK

book was so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written in so striking a See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French language in the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . By this See also:

• LITERARY

literary merit Fustel set little See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store, but he clung tenaciously to his edition of a Latin classic and the first book containing Greek characters, while in the See also:

• COLOPHON

colophon See also:

• FUST, JOHANN ( ?-1466)

Fust for the first See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time calls Schoffer " puerum suum "; (8) the same, 4th See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1466; (9) Grammatica rhytmica (1466), See also:

• FOLIO (properly the ablative case of the Lat. folium, leaf, but also frequently an adaptation of the Ital. foglio)

folio, it leaves . They also printed in 1461–1462 several papal bulls, proclamations of Adolf of See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau, &c . Nothing is known to have appeared for three years after the storming and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz in 1462 . 1 Some confusion in the history of the Fust See also:

• FAMILY

family has arisen since the publication of See also:

• BERNARD, CHARLES DE
• BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878)
• BERNARD, JACQUES (1658--1718)
• BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1S2o—1882)
• BERNARD, SAINT
• BERNARD, SAINT (Iogo-1153)
• BERNARD, SIMON (1779—1839)
• BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART

Bernard's Orig. de l'imprimerie (1853)c On p .

262, vol. i. he gave an See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract from the See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between See also:

• OBERLIN
• OBERLIN, JEAN FREDERIC (1740-1826)
• OBERLIN, JEREMIE JACQUES (1735-1806)

Oberlin and Bodmann (now preserved in the See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris Nat . Library), from which it would appear that See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter Schoffer was the son-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, not of Johann Fust, but of a See also:

• BROTHER

brother of his, See also:

• CONRAD (d. 955)
• CONRAD, JOSEPH (1856– )
• CONRAD, or KONRAD (M. H. Ger. Kuonrdl, i.e. " keen in counsel," Lat. Conradus, It. Corrado, cf. the A.S. Ccenred)

Conrad Fust . Of the latter, owever, no other trace has been found, and he is no doubt a fiction of F . J . Bodmann, who, partly basing himself on the " Conrad " (Henlif, or Henckis) mentioned above, added the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest to gratify Oberlin (see Wyss in Quartalbldtter See also:

• DES

des hist . Vereins fiir Hessen, . 1879, p . 17).theories . When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it, as he often expressed the See also:

• DESIRE

desire to do in the last years of his See also:

• LIFE

life, he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental thesis . The See also:

• WORK

work is now largely superseded . Fustel de Coulanges was the most conscientious of men, the most systematic and uncompromising of historians . Appointed to a lectureship at the Ecole Normale Superieure in February 187o, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875, and to the See also:

• CHAIR (in. Mid. Eng. chcere, through O. Fr. chaire or chaiere, from Lat. cathedra, later caledra, Gr. xaOi3pa, seat, cf. "cathedral"; the modern Fr. form chaise, a chair, has been adopted in English with a particular meaning as a form of carriage; chaire

chair of See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval history created for him at the See also:

• SORBONNE

Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political institutions of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France .

The invasion of France by the German armies during the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war of 187o–71 attracted his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire . Pursuing the theory of J . B . See also:

• DUBOS

Dubos, but singularly transforming it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the violent and destructive character usually attributed to them; that the penetration of the German barbarians into See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul was a slow See also:

• PROCESS

process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration; that the political institutions of theMerovingians had their origins in the Roman See also:

• LAWS

laws at least as much as, if not more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was no See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of Gaul by the Germans . This thesis he sustained brilliantly in his Histoire des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France, the first volume of which appeared in 1874 . It was the author's original intention to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete this work in four volumes, but as the first volume was keenly attacked in See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany as well as in France, Fustel was forced in self-See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence to recast the book entirely . With admirable conscientiousness he re-examined all the texts and wrote a number of See also:

• DISSERTATIONS

dissertations, of which,, though several (e.g. those on the Germanic See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark and on the See also:

• ALLODIUM

allodium and beneffcium) were See also:

• MODELS

models of learning and sagacity, all were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a See also:

• TOTAL

total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic . From this crucible issued an entirely new work, less well arranged than the original, but richar in facts and See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical comments . The first volume was See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded into three volumes, La Gaule romaine (1891), L'Invasion germanique et la fin de l'empire(1891)and La Monarchie franque(1888), followed by three other volumes, L'Alleu et le domaine rural See also:

• PENDANT (through Fr. from Lat. pendere, to hang)

pendant l'epoque merovingienne (1889), Les Origines du systeme feodal: le See also:

• BENEFICE (Lat. beneficium, benefit)

benefice et le patronat . . . (189o) and Les Transformations de la royaute pendant l'epoque carolingienne (1892) . Thus, in six volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period .

The result of this enormous labour, albeit worthy of a See also:

• GREAT

great historian, clearly showed that the author lacked all sense of historical proportion . He was a diligent seeker after the truth, and was perfectly sincere when he informed a critic of the exact number of " truths " he had discovered, and when he remarked to one of his pupils a few days before his See also:

• DEATH

death, " Rest assured that what I have written in my book is the truth." Such superb self-confidence can accomplish much, and it undoubtedly helped to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form Fustel's See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent and to give to his style that admirable concision which subjugates even when it fails to convince; but a student instinctively distrusts an historian who settles the most controverted problems with such impassioned assurance . The dissertations not embodied in his great work were collected by himself and (after his death) by his See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil, Camille Jullian, and published as volumes of miscellanies: Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (1885), dealing with the Roman colonate, the See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• SYSTEM

system in See also:

• NORMANDY

Normandy; the Germanic mark, and the judiciary organization in the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks; Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (1891); and Questions historiques (1893), which contains his See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper on Chios and his thesis on See also:

• POLYBIUS (c. 204–122 B.C.)

Polybius . His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his books . In 1875 he was elected member of the See also:

• ACADEMIC

Academic des Sciences Morales, and in 188o reluctantly accepted the See also:

• POST

post of director of the Ecole Normale . Without intervening personally in French politics, he took a keen See also:

• INTEREST

interest in the questions of administration and social reorganization arising from the fall of the imperialist regime and the disasters of the war . He wished the institutions of the See also:

• PRESENT

present to approximate more closely to those of the past, and devised for the new French constitution a See also:

• BODY

body of reforms which reflected the opinions he had formed upon the See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy at Rome and in ancient France . But these were dreams which did not hold him See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, and he would have been scandalized had he known that his name was subsequently used as the See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem of a political and religious party . He died at Massy (See also:

• SEINE
• SEINE (Lat. Sequana)
• SEINE, or SEAN (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. vaytivrl, a draw-net)

Seine-et-See also:

• OISE

Oise) on the 12th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1889 . Through-out his historical career—at the Ecole Normale and the Sorbonne and in his lectures delivered to the empress See also:

• EUGENIE

Eugenie—his sole aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of truth his polemics against what he imagined to be the See also:

• BLINDNESS

blindness and insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harshness and injustice . But, in France at least, these critics were the first to render See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice to his learning, his talents and his disinterestedness . See See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul See also:

• GUIRAUD, ERNEST (1837—1892)

Guiraud, Fustel de Coulanges (1896) ; H. d'See also:

• ARBOIS

Arbois de Jubainville, Deux Manieres d'ecrire l'histoire: critique de See also:

• BOSSUET, JAQUES BENIGNE (1627-1704)

Bossuet, d'Augustin See also:

• THIERRY

Thierry et de Fustel de Coulanges (1896); and See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel See also:

• MONOD, ADOLPHE (1802–1856)
• MONOD, GABRIEL (1844– )

Monod, Portraits et souvenirs (1897) .

(C .