See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

ALBERT See also:

• ALBERT GALLATIN (1761-1849)

GALLATIN (1761-1849)  , See also:

• AMERICAN

American statesman, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva (See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland) on the 29th of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1761 . The Gallatins were both an old and a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble See also:

• FAMILY

family . They are first heard of in See also:

• SAVOY, HOUSE
• SAVOY, HOUSE OF

Savoy in the See also:

• YEAR

year 1258, and more. than two centuries later they went to Geneva (1510), See also:

• UNITED

united with See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin in his opposition to See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, and associated their fortunes with those of the little Swiss See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . Here they remained, and with one or two other See also:

• GREAT

great families governed Geneva, and sent forth many representatives to seek their See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune and win distinction in the service of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers . On the See also:

• EVE

eve of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, occupying the same position which they had held for two See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years . See also:

• ALBERT
• ALBERT (1490'1545)
• ALBERT (149o-1568)
• ALBERT (1522–1557)
• ALBERT (FRANCIS CHARLES AUGUSTUS ALBERT EMMANUEL) (1819—1861)
• ALBERT (FRIEDRICH RUDOLF ALBRECHT)
• ALBERT, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS
• ALBERT, MADAME (c. 2805—2846)

Albert See also:

• GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849)

Gallatin's See also:

• FATHER

father died in 1765, his See also:

• MOTHER

mother fiveyears later, and his only See also:

• SISTER

sister in '777 . Although See also:

• LEFT

left an See also:

• ORPHAN

orphan at nine, he was by no means lonely or unprotected . His See also:

• GRAND

grand-parents, a large circle of near relatives and Mlle See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine Pictet (d . 1795), an intimate friend of his mother, cared for him during his boyhood . He was thoroughly educated at the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of Geneva, and graduated with See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour from the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college or See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy there in 1779 . His grandmother then wished him to enter the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of the See also:

• LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land, " a country" and Graf, "count" )

landgrave of See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse, but he declined to serve " a See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant," and a year later slipped away from Geneva and embarked for the United States . A competent fortune, See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good prospects, social position, and a strong family connexion were all thrown aside in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to tempt See also:

• FATE

fate in the New See also:

• WORLD

World .

His relatives very properly opposed his course, but they nevertheless did all in their See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power to smooth his way, and continued to treat him kindly . In after See also:

• LIFE

life he himself admitted the See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice of their opinions . The See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper of the times, a vague discontent with the established order of things, and some See also:

• POLITICAL

political See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm imbibed from the writings of See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

Rousseau, are the best reasons which can now be assigned for Gallatin's See also:

• DESERTION

desertion of See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home and See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends . In See also:

• JULY

July 1780 Gallatin and his friend See also:

• HENRI

Henri Serre (d . 1784) landed in See also:

• MASSACHUSETTS (an Indian name, originally applied to a tribe of Indians)

Massachusetts . They brought with them youth, See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope and courage, as well as a little See also:

• MONEY

money, and at once entered into business The times, however, were unfavourable . The great convulsion of the Revolution was See also:

• DRAWING

drawing to a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close, and every-thing was in an unsettled See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition The See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young Genevans failed in business, passed a severe See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter in the wilds of See also:

• MAINE
• MAINE, ANNE LOUISE BENEDICTE DE BOURBON
• MAINE, SIR HENRY JAMES SUMNER (1822–1888)

Maine, and returned to See also:

• BOSTON
• BOSTON, THOMAS (1676-1732)

Boston penniless . Gallatin tried to See also:

• EARN

earn a living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not without success, but the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold and rigid See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization of New See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England repelled him, and he made his way to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South . In the backwoods of See also:

• PENNSYLVANIA
• PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Pennsylvania and See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia there seemed to be better chances for a young adventurer . Gallatin engaged in See also:

• LAND

land speculations, and tried to See also:

• LAY

lay the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of his fortune in a frontier See also:

• FARM

farm . In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre, and every prospect seemed to be brightening . But clouds soon gathered again .

After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and Gallatin was once more alone . The solitary and desolate frontier life became now more dreary than ever; he flung himself into politics, the only outside resource open to him, and his See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long, and eventful public career began . The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with his dislike of strong See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government still upon him, threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders of the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the Republican party . He was a member of the Pennsylvania Constitutional See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention of 1789-1790, and of the Pennsylvania See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose with surprising rapidity, despite his foreign See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth and his inability to speak See also:

• ENGLISH

English with correctness or fluency . He was helped of course by his See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound See also:

• EDUCATION

education; but the true cause of his success lay in his strong sense, untiring See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, courage, clear-sightedness and great intellectual force . In 1793 he was chosen United States senator from Pennsylvania by the votes of both political parties . No higher See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute was ever paid to See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character and ability than that conveyed by this See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election . But the staunch Federalists of the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate, who had begun to draw the party lines rather sharply, found .the presence of the young Genevan highly distasteful . They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of levelling principles His seat was contested on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of a technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the session, the senate annulled the election and sent him back to Pennsylvania with all the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of political martyrdom . The leading See also:

• PART

part which Gallatin had taken in the " See also:

• WHISKY, or WHISKEY

Whisky Insurrection " in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, been an efficient cause in his rejection by the senate . He in-tended fully to restrain within legal See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds the opposition which the See also:

• EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or accijs, possibly from Late Lat. accensare,—ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something to a confusion with excisum, cut out)

excise on domestic See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits had provoked, but he made the serious See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the character of the backwoods See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population When legal resistance See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error and prevent open See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . At Redstone Old Fort (See also:

• BROWNSVILLE

Brownsville) on the 29th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1994, before the " See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

Committee of Sixty " who were appointed to represent the disaffected See also:

• PEOPLE

people, he opposed with vigorous eloquence the use of force against the government, and refused to be intimidated by an excited See also:

• BAND

band of riflemen who happened to be in the vicinity and represented the See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

radical See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element .

He effectively checked the excitement, and when a See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month later an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon the western counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed . Of all the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin alone came out with See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit . He was at once elected to the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of representatives, and took his seat in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1995 . There, by sheer force of ability and industry, he wrested from all competitors the leadership of the Republicans, and be-came the most dangerous opponent whom the Federalists had ever encountered in See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress . Inflamed with a hatred of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, they found in Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion peculiarly See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious to them . They attacked him unsparingly, but in vain . His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and See also:

• ACTION

action, in a bitterly See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, never failed, and were his most effective weapons; but he made his power See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in other ways . His clear mind and industrious habits See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew him to questions of See also:

• FINANCE

finance . He became the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal doctrines of simplicity and See also:

• ECONOMY

economy, and was an effective critic of the See also:

• MEASURES

measures of government . Cool and temperate, Gallatin, when following his own theories, was usually in the right, although accused by his followers of trimming . Thus, in regard to the See also:

• JAY (Fr. geai)
• JAY, JOHN (1745-1829)
• JAY, WILLIAM (1769-1853)

Jay treaty, he defended the constitutional right of the house to consider the treaty, but he did not urge rejection in this specific See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, when following a purely party policy he generally erred .

He resisted the See also:

• NAVY

navy, the mainspring of See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commercial See also:

• TREATIES

treaties and See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic intercourse in a similar See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . On these points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed his views after a good See also:

• DEAL

deal of See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter experience . The greatest See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of Gallatin's career in congress was in 1798, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches . The insults of Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort bribes from the American commissioners, roused the deep anger of the people against France . The Federalists swept all before them, and the members of the opposition either retired from See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia or went over to the government . Alone and single-handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in congress . The Federalists See also:

• BORE

bore down on him unmercifully, and even attempted (1798) a constitutional See also:

• AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from Lat. mendum, a fault)

amendment in regard to citizenship, partly, it appears, in order to drive him from See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office . Still he held on, making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying very little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by See also:

• JEFFERSON
• JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1829-1905)
• JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826)

Jefferson and See also:

• MADISON
• MADISON, JAMES (1751–1836)

Madison . But even then the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide was turning . The strong measures of the Federalists shocked the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country; the leaders of the dominant party quarrelled fiercely among themselves; and the Republicans carried the elections of 'Soo . In the exciting contest for the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency in the house of representatives between Jefferson and See also:

• BURR, AARON (1756-1836)

Burr, it was Gallatin who led the Republicans . When, after this contest, Jefferson became See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president (1801), there were two men whose commanding abilities marked them for the first places in the See also:

• CABINET

cabinet .

See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James Madison became secretary of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and Albert Gallatin secretary of the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury . See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

Wise, prudent and conservative, Gallatin made few changes in See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve years administered the national finances with the greatest skill . He and Jefferson were both imbued with the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea that government could be carried on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness of human nature, and the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of carrying out this theory See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell upon Gallatin . His guiding principles were still simplicity of See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration and speedy extinction of all See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, and every-thing See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent to these See also:

• OBJECTS

objects . Fighting or bribing the See also:

• BARBARY

Barbary pirates was a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere question of expense . It was cheaper to seize See also:

• LOUISIANA

Louisiana than to await the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of doubtful points . Commercial warfare was to be avoided because of the cost . All See also:

• WARS

wars were See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad, but if they could not be evaded it was less extravagant to be ready than to See also:

• RUSH
• RUSH, BENJAMIN (1745–1813)
• RUSH, RICHARD (1780–1859)

rush to arms unprepared . Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself in the See also:

• MATTER

matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six years the public debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase) by $14,260,000, a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive and beneficent See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of See also:

• INTERNAL

internal improvements was ready for See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, and the promised land seemed in sight . Then came the stress of war in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, a wretched See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality at home, fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the See also:

• FAIR

fair structure of government by a priori theories based on the goodness of unoppressed humanity came to the ground . Gallatin was thrown helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of government according to circumstances . He uttered no vain regrets, but the position was a trying one .

The sworn foe of strong government, he was compelled, in pursuance of Jefferson's policy, to put into execution the See also:

• EMBARGO (a Spanish word meaning " stoppage ")

Embargo and other radical and stringent measures . He did his best, but all was in vain . Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and Jefferson, having entangled foreign relations and brought the country to the See also:

• VERGE (Lat. virga, a rod)

verge of See also:

• CIVIL

civil war, retired to private life, leaving to his successor Madison, and to Gallatin, the task of extricating the nation from its difficulties . From 1809 the new administration, drifting steadily towards war, struggled on from one abortive and exasperating negotiation to another . It was a period of sore trial to Gallatin . The See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace policy had failed, and nothing else replaced it . He had lost his hold upon Pennsylvania and his support in the house, while a See also:

• CABAL (through the Fr. cabale from the Cabbala or Kabbalah, the theosophical interpretation of the Hebrew scriptures)

cabal in the senate, bitterly and personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the administration and reduced every government measure to mere inanity . At last, however, in See also:

• JUNE

June 1812, congress on Madison's recommendation declared war against England . Gallatin never wasted See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time in futile complaints . His cherished schemes were shattered . War and extravagant See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure had come, and he believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and progress of See also:

• AMERICA

America . He therefore put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself to mitigate the evil effects of the war by obtaining an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early peace .

With this end in view he grasped eagerly at the proffered See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia, and without resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May 1813 . See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, catching at every opportunity for negotiation . In the midst of his labours came the See also:

• NEWS

news that the senate had refused to confirm his See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment as peace See also:

• COMMISSIONER

commissioner . He still toiled on unofficially until, the objection of the senate having been met by the appointment of a new secretary of the treasury, his second nomination was approved, and he was able to proceed with See also:

• DIRECT

direct negotiations . The English and American commissioners finally met at See also:

• GHENT (Flem. Gent, Fr. Gand)

Ghent, and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued Gallatin took the leading part . His great difficulty lay in managing his colleagues, who were, especially See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

Clay and See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• QUINCY
• QUINCY, JOSIAH (1744–1775)

Quincy See also:

• ADAMS
• ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882)
• ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886)
• ADAMS, HENRY (1838— )
• ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT (i858— )
• ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850—1901)
• ADAMS, JOHN (1735–1826)
• ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY (1767-1848)
• ADAMS, SAMUEL (1722-1803)
• ADAMS, THOMAS (d. c. 1655)
• ADAMS, WILLIAM (d. 162o)

Adams, able men of strong See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills and jarring tempers . He succeeded in preserving See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony, and thus established his own reputation as an able diplomatist . Peace was his See also:

• REWARD

reward; on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was signed; and after visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting in negotiating a commercial convention (x815) with England by which all -discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July 1815 returned to America . While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister to France; this appointment he accepted in January 1816, and adhered to his See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance in spite of his being asked in See also:

• APRIL

April 1816 to serve once more as secretary of the treasury . He remained in France for the next seven years . He passed his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing everybody of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note or merit in Europe . He did not neglect the duties of his See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted See also:

• PATIENCE

patience to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle the commercial relations of his adopted country with the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted See also:

• RICHARD
• RICHARD (d. 1184)
• RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (18,9-1908)
• RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888)
• RICHARD, ST

Richard Rush, then United States minister in See also:

• LONDON

London, in negotiating a commercial convention with Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to take the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of that negotiated in 1815 .

In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress for the presidency . His favourite See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate was his personal friend See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William H . See also:

• CRAWFORD, EARLS OF
• CRAWFORD, FRANCIS MARION (1854–1909)
• CRAWFORD, THOMAS (1814–1857)
• CRAWFORD, WILLIAM HARRIS (1772–1834)

Crawford, whom he regarded as the true See also:

• HEIR (Lat. heres, from a root meaning to grasp, seen in heres or erus, master of a house, Gr. xeip, hand, Sans. hat ana, hand)

heir and representative of the old Jeffersonian principles . With these feelings he consented in May 1824 to stand for the See also:

• VICE

vice-presidency on the Crawford See also:

• TICKET (O. Fr. esliquet, also estiquette, mod. etiquette, from Ger. sleeken, to stick up)

ticket . But Gallatin had come home to new scenes and new actors, and he did not fully appreciate the situation . The contest was bitter, personal, factious and full of intrigue . See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin See also:

• VAN

Van Buren, then in the Crawford See also:

• INTEREST

interest, came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second place, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in See also:

• OCTOBER

October Gallatin retired from the contest . The election, undecided by the popular See also:

• VOTE

vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and sent him as minister to England to conduct another complicated and arduous negotiation . Gallatin worked at his new task with his usual industry, tact and patience, but the results were meagre, although an open See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach on the delicate question of the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east boundary of the United States was avoided by referring it to the See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

arbitration of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands . In See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1827 he once more returned to the United States and bade farewell to public life . Taking up his See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence in New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, he was in 1832–1839 president of the National See also:

• BANK

Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York, but his duties were See also:

• LIGHT

light, and he devoted himself chiefly to the congenial pursuits of See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and literature . In both See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields he displayed much See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent, and by See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing his Synopsis of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the See also:

• BRITISH

British and Russian Possessions in North America (1836), and by See also:

• FOUNDING (from Lat. fundere, to pour)

founding the American Ethnological Society of New York in i842, he earned the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of " Father of American See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest himself in public affairs, although no longer an active participant, and in all See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial questions, especially in regard to the bank See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter, the resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, he exerted a powerful See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence .

The rise of the See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery question touched him nearly . Gallatin had always been a consistent opponent of slavery; he felt keenly, therefore, the attempts of the South to extend the slave power and confirm its existence, and the remnant of his strength was devoted in his last days to writing and distributing two able See also:

• PAMPHLETS

pamphlets against the war with See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico . Almost his last public See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act was a speech, on the 24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of See also:

• TEXAS

Texas; and in his eighty-See also:

• FOURTH

fourth year he confronted a howling New York See also:

• MOB

mob with the same cool, unflinching courage which he had displayed See also:

• HALF

half a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century before when he faced the armed frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort . During the winter of 1848–1849 his See also:

• HEALTH

health failed, and on the 12th of August 1849, at the home of his daughter in See also:

• ASTORIA

Astoria, Long See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

Island, he passed peace-fully away . Gallatin was twice married . His second wife, whom he married in November 1793, was See also:

• MISS

Miss Hannah See also:

• NICHOLSON, HENRY ALLEYNE (1844-1899)
• NICHOLSON, JOHN (1822-18J7)
• NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1753-1815)
• NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1784-1844)

Nicholson, of New York, the daughter of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

Corn . James Nicholson (1737–1804), an American See also:

• NAVAL

naval officer, See also:

• COMMANDER

commander-in-chief of the navy from 1777 until August 1781, when with his See also:

• SHIP

ship the " Virginia," he was taken by the British " See also:

• IRIS

Iris " and " See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

Monk." By her he had three See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, two sons and a daughter, who all survived him . In personal See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance he was above See also:

• MIDDLE

middle height, with strongly-marked features, indicating great strength of See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect and character . He was reserved and very reticent, cold in manner and not sympathetic . There was, too, a certain Calvinistic austerity about him . But he was much beloved by his family . He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have a strong personal following or many attached friends .

He stood; with Jefferson and Madison, at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of his party, and won his place by force of character, courage, application and intellectual power . His eminent and manifold services to his adopted country, his great abilities and upright character, assure him a high position in the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the United States . The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, were published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879 . With thesevolumes was published an excellent See also:

• BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. (3ios, life, and yp&4 , writing)

biography, The Life of Albert Gallatin, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John See also:

• AUSTIN
• AUSTIN, ALFRED
• AUSTIN, JOHN (179o-1859)
• AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867)
• AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836)

Austin See also:

• STEVENS,
• STEVENS, A
• STEVENS, ALFRED (1818-1875)
• STEVENS, ALFRED (1828-1906)
• STEVENS, HENRY (1819—1886)

Stevens's Albert Gallatin (Boston, 1884) in the " American Statesmen" See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . (H . C .