See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

GAUGE, or See also:

• GAGE
• GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836– )
• GAGE, THOMAS (1721–1787)

GAGE (Med. See also:

• LAT

Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, See also:

• GALLON

gallon)  , a See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of measurement, and also the name given to various See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments and appliances by which measurement is effected . The word seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the See also:

• PROCESS

process of ascertaining the contents of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine casks; the name gauger is still applied to certain See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom-See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house officials in the See also:

• UNITED

United States, and in See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland it means an exciseman . Thence it was extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments used in making them or of the See also:

• STANDARDS

standards to which they were referred . In the See also:

• MECHANICAL

mechanical arts gauges are employed in See also:

• GREAT

great variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the See also:

• OBJECT

object he is making is of the proper dimensions (see See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

Tool), and similar gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify the sizes of manufactured articles such as See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire and screws . A See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the rainfall at any locality, and a See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind gauge indicates the pressure and force of the wind . The boilers of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam engines are provided with a See also:

• WATER

water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge . The purpose of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not there is a sufficient quantity of water in the See also:

• BOILER

boiler . It consists of two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise; a See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube connects the two cocks, and when they are both open the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler . The steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler . One of the commonest forms, known as the See also:

• BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS (d. 1797)

Bourdon gauge, depends on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the pressure within it is greater than that outside it . This gauge therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of. elastic material, and preferably of elliptic See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section, connected with the boiler and arranged with a multiplying See also:

• GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion, especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the Old Tent. garwjan, to make ready)

gear so that its bending or unbending actuates a pointer moving over a graduated See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . If the pressure within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to See also:

• BEND

bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before, the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far the pressure in the See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel to which it is attached is below that of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere .

In railway See also:

• ENGINEERING

engineering the gauge of a See also:

• LINE

line is the distance between the two rails (see RAILWAY) . In nautical See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier to the See also:

• PYRENEES [Span. Pirineos, Fr. Pyrenees]

Pyrenees (i.e. all that was not Massiliot) with its See also:

• PORT

port of Narbo (mod . See also:

• NARBONNE

Narbonne) and its See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade route by See also:

• TOULOUSE
• TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737)

Toulouse to the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic, was formed into the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of Gallia Narbonensis and Narbo itself into a See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• MUNICIPALITY

municipality . Commercial motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and See also:

• LAND

land speculators speedily flocked in . Gradually the province was extended See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of Massilia, up the See also:

• RHONE
• RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus)

Rhone, while the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• TOWN

town itself became weak and dependent on See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . It is not, however, until the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 1st See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. that we have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman See also:

• GAUL
• GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855— )

Gaul . The earliest See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account is that contained in the Commentaries of See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar . According to this authority, Gaul was at that See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time divided among three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani, the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the See also:

• BELGAE

Belgae . The first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna (See also:

• GARONNE (Lat. Garumna)

Garonne); the second, from that See also:

• RIVER

river to the Sequana (See also:

• SEINE
• SEINE (Lat. Sequana)
• SEINE, or SEAN (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. vaytivrl, a draw-net)

Seine) and its See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief tributary the Matrona (See also:

• MARNE

Marne), reaching eastward presumably as far as the Rhenus (See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine); and the third, from this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus bordering on the Germans . By implication Caesar recognizes as a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division the province of Gallia Narbonensis . By far the greater See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain watered by numerous See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned, with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligeris (See also:

• LOIRE

Loire) . Its See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain ranges were Cebenna or Gebenna (See also:

• CEVENNES (Lat. Cebenna or Gebenna)

Cevennes) in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, and See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura, with its continuation Vosegus or Vogesus (See also:

• VOSGES
• VOSGES (Lat. Vogesus or Vosagus, Ger. Wasgau or Vogesen)

Vosges), in the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east .

The tribes inhabiting Gaul in Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races distinguished by him, were numerous . Prominent among them, and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the See also:

• HELVETII ('El ouipeot, 'EXI3ilrriol)

Helvetii, the See also:

• SEQUANI

Sequani and the See also:

• AEDUI, HAEDUT

Aedui, in the basins of the Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar (See also:

• SAONE

Saone), who, he says, were reckoned the three most powerful nations in all Gaul; the See also:

• ARVERNI

Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the See also:

• SENONES

Senones and See also:

• CARNUTES (Carnuti, Carnutae, Kapvovri'vot in Plutarch)

Carnutes in the See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin of the Liger; the See also:

• VENETI

Veneti and other Armorican tribes between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana . The Nervii, Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani; while the See also:

• ALLOBROGES (in Gr. usually 'AXX6j3peryes)

Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having been conquered in 121 B.C . The ethnological divisions thus set forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see See also:

• CELT
• CELT, or KELT

CELT, and articles on the chief tribes) . The Gallic See also:

• WARS

Wars (58—51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest,of Gaul, north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the Cevennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean, and in 49 also annexed Massilia . All Gaul was now Roman territory . Now the second See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of her See also:

• HISTORY

history opens; it remained for Roman territory to become romanized . Caesar had no time to organize his See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest; this See also:

• WORK

work was See also:

• LEFT

left to See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus . As settled by him, and in part perhaps also by his successor Tiberius, it See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the following five administrative areas . (i) Narbonensis, that is, the land between See also:

• ALPS

Alps, See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea and Cevennes, extending up the Rhone to See also:

• VIENNE
• VIENNE, COUNCIL OF

Vienne, was as Augustus found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul . By nature it is a See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun-steeped See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern region, the See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of the See also:

• VINE

vine and See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provencal and the exuberance of Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north . By history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Roman for from 8o to See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo years and was See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with Roman ways .

It was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need no See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison . Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a proconsul (appointed by the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate) and freed from the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of troops, while its See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government was assimilated to that of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . The old See also:

• CELTIC

Celtic tribes were broken up: instead, municipalities of Roman citizens were founded to See also:

• RULE

rule their territories . Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the colonia of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna takes their See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place: the See also:

• VOLCAE

Volcae vanish and we find Nemausus (See also:

• NIMES
• NIMES, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Nemausensia)

Nimes) . Thus thrown into See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, the province took rapidly to Italian ways . By A.D . 70 it was " Italia verius quam provincia " (See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny) . The Gauls obviously had a natural See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias towards the Italian See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, and there soon became no difference between Italy and southern Gaul . But though educa-tion spread, the results were somewhat disappointing . Trade flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the like on the Rhone made See also:

• MONEY

money; the many towns See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and could afford splendid public buildings . But no great writer and no great See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

administrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and journalists alone were produced in plenty, and at times See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor poets . (ii.-iv.) Across the Cevennes See also:

• LAY

lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic in See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, new to Roman ways .

The whole See also:

• AREA

area, often collectively styled " Gallia Comata," often " Tres Provinciae," was divided into three provinces, each under a legatus See also:

• PRO

pro praetore appointed by the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, with a See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital at Lugudunuin (See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons) . The three provinces were: Aquitania, reaching from the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; Lugudunensis, the land between Loire and Seine, reaching from See also:

• BRITTANY

Brittany in the west to Lyons in the south-east; and Belgica in the north . The boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial . Here also it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the Rhine See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army was See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close at See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand . As befitted an unromanized region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbonensis . Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, but very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old tribal districts . Local See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy was here carried to an extreme . But the policy succeeded . The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or some of them, revolted in A.D . 21 under See also:

• FLORUS
• FLORUS, JULIUS
• FLORUS, PUBLIUS ANNIUS

Florus and Sacrovir, in 68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

Tutor (see Ovals, See also:

• CLAUDIUS
• CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS]
• CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
• CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (174o-1815)

CLAUDIUS) . But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire: In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became hardly distinguishable from the Italian . In particular, they eagerly accepted the See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship of " Augustus and Rome," devised by the first emperor as a See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion connecting the provinces with Rome .

Each See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August, despite the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, representatives from the 6o (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met at Lyons, elected a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, " sacerdos ad See also:

• ARAM, EUGENE (17o4-17J9)

aram See also:

• AUGUSTI, JOHANN CHRISTIAN WILHELM (1772-1841)

Augusti et Romae," and held See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games . The See also:

• POST

post of representative, and still more that of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope for the ambitions which despotism usually crushes . It agrees with the vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces, though romanized, retained their own local feeling . Even in the 3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (See also:

• HERCULES
• HERCULES (0. Lat. Hercoles, Hercles)

Hercules Magusanus, Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic leuga reintroduced. instead of the Roman mile on See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official milestones, and a brief effort made to establish an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent, though romanized, Gaul under Postumus and his See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived successors (A.D . 259—273) . Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individuality: it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis . It is even probable that Celtic was spoken in See also:

• FOREST

forest districts into the 4th century A.D . Town See also:

• LIFE

life, however, grew . The chefs-lieux of the tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities, and many of these towns reached considerable See also:

• SIZE

size and magnificence of public buildings . But they attest their tribal relations by their appellations, which are commonly See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the name of the tribe and not of the town itself . Thus the capitals of the Remi and• Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the appellations in use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisiusthese forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of locative of the tribe names . Literature also flourished .

In the latest empire See also:

• AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395)

Ausonius, See also:

• SYMMACHUS

Symmachus, See also:

• APOLLINARIS
• APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS

Apollinaris, Sidonius and other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the classical See also:

• LITERARY

literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the See also:

• WORLD

world . (v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military frontier . Augustus had planned the conquest of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany up to the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe . His plans were foiled by the courage of See also:

• ARMINIUS
• ARMINIUS, JACOBUS (1560-1609)

Arminius and • the inability of the Roman See also:

• EXCHEQUER

exchequer to pay a larger army . Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in two military districts . The See also:

• NORTHERN

northern one was the valley of the See also:

• MEUSE
• MEUSE (Flem. Maes, Du. Maas)

Meuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of See also:

• BONN

Bonn: the southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . Each See also:

• DISTRICT

district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions, which were disposed at various times in some of the following fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (See also:

• NEUSS

Neuss), Bonne (Bonn), Moguntiacum (See also:

• MAINZ (Fr. Mayence)

Mainz), Argentorate (See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg) and Vindonissa (Windisch in Switzerland) . At first the districts were purely military, were called, after the garrisons, " exercitus Germanicus See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior " (south) and "inferior " (north) . Later one or two municipalities were founded—Colonia Agrippinensis at See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne (A.D . 51), Colonia See also:

• AUGUSTA

Augusta Treverorum at See also:

• TRIER (French Troves)

Trier (date uncertain), Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera—and about 8o–90 A.D. the two " Exercitus " were turned into the two provinces of Upper and See also:

• LOWER

Lower Germany . The armies in these districts formed the See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Gaul against See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German invaders . They also helped to keep Gaul itself in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order and their presence explains why the four provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops .

These provincial divisions were modified by See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian but without seriously affecting the life of Gaul . The whole country, indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from See also:

• BARBARIAN (Gr. fap/3apos)

barbarian invasions till after 400 . In 407 a multitude of See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks, See also:

• VANDALS (Lat. Vandili or Vandilii)

Vandals, &c., burst over Gaul: Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . There were still a Roman general and Roman troops when See also:

• ATTILA (d. 453)

Attila was defeated in the See also:

• CAMPI, GIULIO (1500-1572)

campi Catalaunici in A.D . 451, but the general, See also:

• AETIUS
• AETIUS (d. 454)
• AETIUS (fl. 350)

Aetius, was " the last of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans," and in 486 See also:

• CLOVIS [Chlodovech] (c. 466-511)

Clovis the See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul . For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the See also:

• MODERN

modern towns (See also:

• ARLES
• ARLES, KINGDOM OF

ARLES, NIMEs, See also:

• ORANGE
• ORANGE (Citrus Aurantium)
• ORANGE, HOUSE OF

ORANGE, &c.), See also:

• BIBRACTE

BIBRACTE, See also:

• ALESIA

ALESIA, ITIUS See also:

• PORTUS

PORTUS, See also:

• AQUEDUCT (Lat. aqua, water, and ducere, to lead; Gr. apaymryeiov, apayeeywov, vlrovopos)

AQUEDUCT, See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

ARCHITECTURE, See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

AMPHITHEATRE, &C.; for religion see See also:

• DRUIDISM

DRUIDISM; for the famous See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools of See also:

• AUTUN

Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles and Narbonne, see J . E . See also:

• SANDYS, FREDERICK (1832-1904)
• SANDYS, GEORGE (1578-1644)
• SANDYS, SIR EDWIN (1561-1629)

Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (ed . 1906-1908), i. pp . 247-250; for the Roman provinces, Th . See also:

• MOMMSEN, THEODOR (1817–1903)

Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (trans . 1886), vol. i. See also:

• CHAP

chap. iii .