GENERAL  PRINCIPLES] the See also:

• ATLANTIC

Atlantic; and, throughout the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, the knowledge that at any moment a vast See also:

• FLEET

fleet of transports might appear off any one of the ports on their enormous seaboard prevented the See also:

• CON

Con-federates, notwithstanding that the garrisons were reduced to a most dangerous extent, from massing their full strength for a decisive effort . The See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of striking like " a See also:

• BOLT

bolt from the See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue " is of the very greatest value in war . Surprise was the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of almost all the See also:

• GRAND

grand strategical combinations of the past, as it will be of those to come . The first thought and the last of the See also:

• GREAT

great general is to outwit his adversary, and to strike A"" where he is least expected . And the See also:

• MEASURES

measures he adopts phlbious power. to accomplish his purpose are not easily divined . What soldier in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe anticipated See also:

• MARLBOROUGH
• MARLBOROUGH, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• MARLBOROUGH, JOHN CHURCHILL, 1ST DUKE OF (1650-1722)

Marlborough's See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march to the See also:

• DANUBE (Ger. Donau, Hungarian Duna, Rumanian Dunarea, Lat. Danubius or Danuvius, and in the lower part of its course Ister)

Danube and See also:

• BLENHEIM (Ger. Blindheim)

Blenheim See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field ? What other See also:

• BRAIN (A.S. braegen)

brain besides See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon's dreamt of the passage of the See also:

• ALPS

Alps before See also:

• MARENGO

Marengo ? Was there a single general of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia before See also:

• JENA

Jena who foresaw that the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French would march See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north from the Bavarian frontier, uncovering the roads to the See also:

• RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijn)

Rhine, and risking utter destruction in See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of defeat ? Who believed, in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• JUNE

June of 1815, that an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army 130,000 strong would dare to invade a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country defended by two armies that mustered together over 200,000 unbeaten soldiers ? To what Federal soldier did it occur, on the See also:

• MORNING

morning of See also:

• CHANCELLORSVILLE

Chancellorsville, that See also:

• LEE
• LEE (or LEGIT) ROWLAND (d. 1543)
• LEE, ANN (1736–1784)
• LEE, ARTHUR (1740–1792)
• LEE, FITZHUGH (1835–1905)
• LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851)
• LEE, HENRY (1756-1818)
• LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869)
• LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-16g2)
• LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794)
• LEE, ROBERT EDWARD (1807–1870)
• LEE, SIDNEY (1859– )
• LEE, SOPHIA (1950-1824)
• LEE, STEPHEN DILL (1833-1908)

Lee, confronted by 90,000 Northerners, would detach the See also:

• HALF

half of his own small force of X0,000 to attack his enemy in flank and See also:

• REAR

rear ? The very course which appeared to See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary minds so beset by difficulties and dangers as to be outside the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy has, over and over again, been that which led to decisive victory; and if there is one See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson more valuable than another as regards See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, it is that preparation cannct be too careful or precautions overdone . Overwhelming See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers, adequately trained, commanded and equipped, are the only means of ensuring See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security .

But a numerical preponderance, either by See also:

• LAND

land or See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, over all possible hostile combinations, is unattainable, and in See also:

• DEFAULT (Fr. defaut, from defailler, to fail, Lat. fallere)

default the only See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound policy is to take timely and ample precautions against all enterprises which are even remotely possible . There is nothing more to be dreaded in war than the combined labours of a thoroughly well-trained general See also:

• STAFF (O. Eng. staef, cf. Du. staf, Ger. Stab, &c.; Icel. stafr meant also a written letter, and O. Eng. stafas, the letters of the alphabet; " stave," one of the thin pieces of wood of which a cask is made, is a doublet)

staff, except the See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect and audacity of a great strategist . The ordinary mind, even if it does Impart- not shrink from great danger, See also:

• SEES

sees no way of surmount- tome of strategy. See also:

• ING

ing great difficulties; and any operation which involves both vast dangers and vast difficulties it scoffs at as chimerical . The See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born strategist, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, " takes no counsel of his fears." Knowing that success is seldom to be won without incurring risks, he is always greatly daring; and by the skill with which be overcomes all obstacles, and even uses them, as See also:

• HANNIBAL
• HANNIBAL (" mercy " or " favour of Baal ")

Hannibal and Napoleon did the Alps, and as some great See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

captain of the future may use the sea, to further his purpose and surprise his adversary, he shows his superiority to the See also:

• COMMON

common See also:

• HERD (a word common to Teutonic languages; the O. Eng. form was heord; cf. Ger. Herde, Swed. and Dan. hjord; the Sans. ca'rdhas, which shows the pre-Teutonic form, means a troop)

herd . It is repeated ad nauseam that in consequence of the vastly improved means of transmitting See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information, surprise on a large See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale is no longer to be feared . It is to be remembered, however, that the means of concentrating troops and See also:

• SHIPS

ships are far speedier than of old; that false information can he far more readily distributed; and also, that if there is one thing more certain than another, it is that the great strategist, surprise being still the most deadly of all weapons, will devote the whole force of his intellect to the problem of bringing it about . Nor is it to be disguised that amphibious power is a far more terrible weapon than even in the days when it crushed Napoleon . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce has increased by leaps and See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds, and it is no longer confined within territorial limits . The See also:

• ARTERIES (Gr. ap-rnpia, probably from a"spew, to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with ai7P, air)

arteries vital to the existence of civilized communities stretch over every ocean . States which in 1800 rated their maritime See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic at a few See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred thousand pounds See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling, value it now at many millions . Others, whose flags, fifty years ago, were almost unknown on the high seas, possess to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day great fleets of merchantmen; and those who fifty years ago were self-dependent, rely in great See also:

• PART

part, for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of their prosperity, on their intercourse3 I I with distant continents . There is no great power, and few small ones, to whom the loss of its sea-See also:

• BORNE, KARL LUDWIG (1786–1837)

borne See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade would be other than a most deadly See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow; and there is no great power that is not far more vulnerable than when Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, single-handed, held her own against a See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition .

Colonies, commercial ports, See also:

• DOCKYARDS

dockyards, coaling-stations are so many hostages to See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune . See also:

• YEAR

Year by year they become more numerous . Year by year, as commercial rivalry grows more acute, they become more intimately See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with the prosperity and See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of their See also:

• MOTHER

mother-countries . And to what end ? To exist as pledges of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, auspicia melioris aevi, or to fall an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to the power that is supreme at sea and can strike hard on land ? Even the baldest and briefest discussion of the vast subject of war would be incomplete without some reference to the relative merits of professional and unprofessional value of soldiers . Voluntary service still holds its ground in the unprofes-Anglo-Saxon states; and both the See also:

• UNITED

United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom atonal and See also:

• AMERICA

America will have to a great extent to rely, in troops. case of conflicts which tax all their resources, on troops who have neither the practice nor the discipline of their See also:

• STANDING

standing armies . What will be the value of these amateurs when pitted against regulars ? Putting the question of moral aside, as leading us too far afield, it is clear that the individual See also:

• AMATEUR (Lat. amator, lover)

amateur must depend upon his training . If, like the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the Boers, he is a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good shot, a good See also:

• SCOUT (from O. Fr. escouter, mod. ecouter, Lat. auscultare, to listen)

scout, a good skirmisher and, if mounted, a good horseman and horsemaster, he is undeniably a most useful soldier . But whether amateurs en masse, that is, when organized into battalions and brigades, are thoroughly trustworthy, depends on the quality of their See also:

• OFFICERS

officers . With good officers, and a certain amount of previous training, there is no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason why bodies of See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry, See also:

• ARTILLERY (the O. Fr. artiller, to equip with engines of war, probably comes from Late Lat. articulum, dim. of ars, art, cf. " engine " from ingenium, or of artus, joint)

artillery or mounted infantry, composed entirely of unprofessional soldiers, should not do excellent service in the field .

Where they are likely to fail is in discipline; and it would appear that at the beginning of a See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign they are more liable to panic, less resolute in attack, less enduring under heavy losses and great hardships, and much slower in manoeuvre than the professionals . To a certain extent this is inevitable; and it has a most important bearing on the value of the See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen soldier, for the beginning of a campaign is a most See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical phase . In See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, troops who are only half-trained or have been hastily raised may be a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive danger to the army to which they belong; and the shelter of stout earthworks is the only See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place for them . Yet the presence of a certain number of experienced fighting men in the ranks may make all the difference; and, in any case, it is probable that battalions composed of unprofessional soldiers, the See also:

• FREE

free citizens of a free and prosperous See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, are little if at all inferior, as fighting See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units, to battalions composed of conscripts . But it is to be understood that the men possess the qualifications referred to above, that the officers are accustomed to command and have a good practical knowledge of their duties in the field . A See also:

• MOB

mob, however patriotic, carrying small-See also:

• BORE

bore rifles is no more likely to hold its own to-day against well-led regulars than did the mob carrying pikes and See also:

• FLINT
• FLINT, AUSTIN (1812-1886)
• FLINT, or FLTNTSHTRE (sir Gallestr)
• FLINT, ROBERT (1838- )
• FLINT, TIMOTHY (1780-1840)

flint-locks in the past . A small See also:

• BODY

body of resolute civilians, well-armed and skilful marksmen, might easily on their own ground defeat the same number of trained soldiers, especially if the latter were badly led . But in a war of masses, .the power of See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination, of rapid and orderly See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement, and of See also:

• TACTICAL

tactical manoeuvring is bound to tell . (G.F.R.H.) II . See also:

• LAWS

LAWS OF WAR The See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of war, in strict usage, does not apply to all armed conflicts, but only to such conflicts as, by the usage of states, Clvnwar constitute war . War exists when the organized armed as distin- forces of one state are opposed to the organized armed gulshed forces of another state . War also exists within the from bounds of a single state when organized armed forces, See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion. of sufficient power to make the issue doubtful, place themselves in opposition to the armed forces of the existing See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government .

If the disaffected forces are in a state of flagrant inferiority in comparison with those of the existing government there is not a state of war but of rebellion . The combatants in See also:

• CIVIL

civil war are entitled to treatment in accordance with the law of war . Rebels, as outlaws, have no rights . In the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AFRICAN

African campaign (1899-1902) the question arose whether the See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest inferiority of the See also:

• BOER

Boer forces, the See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession by the See also:

• BRITISH

British forces of the seats of government, and their practical occupation of the whole country, did not put an end to the state of war and constitute the Boer fighting forces rebels against a new existing government which had proclaimed See also:

• ANNEXATION (Lat. ad, to, and nexus, joining)

annexation of the conquered states . The See also:

• ACTION

action of the British commanders is a precedent in favour of the view that the fighting forces of an invaded state are entitled to belligerent rights, though in a state of hopeless inferiority, so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long as they remain in the field in organized bands . In this, as in many cases which have formed See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international usage, the danger of See also:

• REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. reprehendere, to take back)

reprisals more than the See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic of principles has dictated a different See also:

• LINE

line of conduct from that which the strict principles of law suggested . A somewhat similar, but more complicated situation, arose out of the cession by See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain to the United States of the Philippine Islands . The insurgents being in possession of them at the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, Spain ceded what she did not in fact possess . Thus it has been contended that the position of the insurgents became that of belligerents defending their country against See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest by invading forces . See also:

• WARS

Wars have been classed in different ways—wars of intervention, wars of conquest, wars of defence, wars of See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, just wars, unjust wars, and so on; but the law of war applies to them all without distinction . States do not sit as See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges over each other, but treat war, subject to their own See also:

• INTEREST

interest, as a fact . Interest, however, with the increasing development of international relations is becoming a more important See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the determination of the attitude of the neutral onlooker (see See also:

• NEUTRALITY

NEUTRALITY) .

In the Chino-See also:

• JAPANESE

Japanese War (1894-95) the Japanese had to decide whether the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese were entitled to treatment under the European law of war . See also:

• JAPAN

Japan had acceded to the " Markomannia " on the ground that they were See also:

• CONTRABAND (Fr. contrebande, from contra, against, and bannum, Low Lat. for " proclamation ")

contraband destined for the armed forces of the existing Haytian government . The " See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete-a-See also:

• PIERROT (Ital. Pedrolino)

Pierrot " had for some years formed part of the Haytian See also:

• NAVY

navy, and was commanded by See also:

• ADMIRAL

Admiral Killick, who had been an admiral of that navy . There had been no recognition of the See also:

• BELLIGERENCY

belligerency of the insurgents . No state seems to have made any observations on the incident, which may be taken to be in accordance with current international usage . A well-known instance of a neutral government recognizing insurgent forces as belligerent, in spite of the denial of that See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character to them by the state against which they British re. are carrying on hostilities, occurred in the North See also:

• COGNITION (Latin cognitio, from cognoscere, to become acquainted with)

cognition See also:

• AMERICAN

American Civil War . The right asserted by Great "the chit' Britain to recognize the belligerency of the Con- federates. federate forces was based on the contention that British commercial interests were very largely affected by the See also:

• BLOCKADE
• BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade)

blockade of the Southern_ ports . It is agreed, however, among jurists that, where the interests of neighbouring states are not affected, the recognition of an insurgent's belligerency is needless interference ? The recognition of belligerency does not See also:

• ENTAIL (from Fr. tailler, to cut; the old derivation from tales haeredes is now abandoned)

entail recognition of the belligerent as a See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign state . It goes no farther than its immediate purpose . The belligerent armies effect of are lawful combatants, not bandits . Supplies taken recognifrom invaded territory are requisitions, not See also:

• ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal)

robbery. con of The belligerent ships of war are lawful cruisers, not belligerpirates; and their captures, made in accordance env, .

with maritime law, are good See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize; and their blockades, if effectual, must be respected by neutrals . But this does not suffice to invest the belligerent with the attributes of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty for such See also:

• OBJECTS

objects as negotiation of See also:

• TREATIES

treaties, and the accrediting of See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic and consular agents . This was the attitude of Great Britain and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France towards the Confederates in the American Civil War . The position. of a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal state or a See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony carrying on See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign war without the consent of the suzerain or See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

parent state might involve still more complicated issues.' Civilized warfare, the textbooks tell us, is confined, as far as possible, to disablement of the armed forces of the enemy; otherwise war would continue till one of the parties was exterminated . " It is with good reason," observes foeices and See also:

• VATTEL, EMERIC (EMER) DE (1714-1767)

Vattel, " that this practice has grown into a See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom civilians. with the nations of Europe, at least with those that keep up See also:

• REGULAR

regular standing armies or bodies of See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia . The troops alone carry on war, while the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the nation remain in peace " (Law of Nations, iii . 226) . See also:

• MODERN

Modern notions of patriotism do not, however, view this See also:

• TOTAL

total and unconditional abstention of the 2 It is also agreed that, as the existence of belligerency imposes burdens and liabilities upon neutral subjects, a state engaged in civil war has no right, in endeavouring to effect its warlike objects, to em-ploy measures against foreign vessels, which, though sanctioned in time of peace, are not recognized in time of war . In other words, it cannot enjoy at one and the same moment the rights of both peace and war . Thus, in 1861, when the government of New See also:

• GRANADA
• GRANADA, LUIS DE (1504-1588)

Granada, during a civil war, announced that certain ports would be closed, not by blockade, but by See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• RUSSELL (FAMILY)
• RUSSELL, ISRAEL COOK (1852- )
• RUSSELL, JOHN (1745-1806)
• RUSSELL, JOHN (d. 1494)
• RUSSELL, JOHN RUSSELL, 1ST EARL (1792-1878)
• RUSSELL, JOHN SCOTT (1808–1882)
• RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM (1639–1683)
• RUSSELL, SIR WILLIAM HOWARD
• RUSSELL, THOMAS (1762-1788)
• RUSSELL, WILLIAM CLARK (1844– )

Russell said that " it was perfectly competent to the government of a country in a state of tranquillity to say which ports should be open to trade, and which should be closed; but in the event of insurrection, or civil war in that country, it was not competent for its government to See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close ports which were de facto in the hands of the insurgents; and that such a proceeding would be an invasion of international law See also:

• RELATING

relating to blockade " (See also:

• HANSARD, LUKE (1752-1828)

Hansard, chili., 1846) . Subsequently the government of the United States proposed to adopt the same measure against the ports of the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern States, upon which Lord John Russell wrote to Lord See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons that " Her See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty's government entirely concur with the French government in the See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree closing the Southern ports would be entirely illegal, and would be an evasion of that recognized See also:

• MAXIM, SIR HIRAM STEVENS (184o- )

maxim of the law of nations that the ports of a belligerent can only be closed by an effective blockade " (State Papers, North America, No . I, 1862) .

In neither case was the order carried out . When in 1885 the See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President of See also:

• COLOMBIA

Colombia, during the existence of civil war, declared several ports to be closed without instituting a blockade, Mr T . F . See also:

• BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473–1524)
• BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898)

Bayard, Secretary of State of the United States, in a despatch of 24th See also:

• APRIL

April of that year, fully acknowledged the principle of this contention by refusing to acknowledge the See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

closure . In the Servo-Bulgarian War of 1885 the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

Sultan, though suzerain of See also:

• BULGARIA
• BULGARIA, EASTERN

Bulgaria, was unmoved by the invasion of his vassal's dominions . Neutral interest . War with See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

Convention (see below) in 1886, and to the ous peoples . See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

Declaration of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris (see below) in 1887 . See also:

• CHINA

China was a See also:

• PEOPLE

people party to neither, and observed the provisions of neither. japan, nevertheless, as related by her learned judicial advisers, Professors Ariga and Takahashi, observed towards the Chinese forces, combatant and non-combatant, all the rules of European International Law without resorting to the reprisals to which Chinese barbarities provoked her . The position of neutral governments towards insurgent forces is always a delicate one . If they are not recognized as Neutral belligerents by the state against which they are position arrayed, the state in question theoretically accepts towards responsibility for the consequences of their acts in insurgents. respect of neutral states . A neutral state may be satisfied with this responsibility, or it may recognize the See also:

• BEL

bel- ligerent character of the insurgents .

If, however, it does not, the insurgent forces cannot exercise rights of war against neutral See also:

• PROPERTY

property without exposing themselves to treatment as outlaws and pirates . A case of such treatment occurred in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 19o2 in connexion with a then pending revolution in Hayti . A See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German cruiser, the " See also:

• PANTHER

Panther," treated an insurgent gunbcat, the " Crete-a-Pierrot," as a pirate See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel,' and sank her for having stopped and confiscated arms and See also:

• AMMUNITION

ammunition found among the See also:

• CARGO (Span. for " loading," from Lat. carries, car)

cargo of the German steamer The Times (9th September 1902) . civilian See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population as any longer possible . They have found, to some extent, expression in the following Articles of the See also:

• HAGUE, THE (in Dutch, 's Gravenhage, or, abbreviated, den Haag; in Fr. La Haye; and in Late Lat. Haga Comitis)

Hague War-Regulations: " See also:

• ART

Art . 1 . The laws, rights and duties of war apply not only to an army, but also to militia and volunteer See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps fulfilling the following conditions: (a) To be commanded by a See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person responsible for his subordinates; (b) to have a fixed distinctive See also:

• EMBLEM (Gr. Eµ3Xysa, something put in or inserted, from EµfiiXAew, to throw in)

emblem recognizable at a distance; (c) to carry arms openly; and (d) to conduct their operations in accordance with the laws and customs of war . In countries where militia or volunteer corps constitute the army, or See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form part of it, they are included under the See also:

• DENOMINATION (Lat. denominare, to give a specific name to)

denomination ' army.' " Art . 2 . The population of a territory not under occupation, who, on the enemy's approach, spontaneously take up arms to resist the invading troops without having had time to organize themselves in accordance with See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

Article 1, shall be regarded as belligerent if they carry arms openly, and if they respect the laws and customs of war."' The only alteration made by the revised Convention of Nov . 27th, 1907, as compared with that of 1899 is the insertion in Art . 2 of the words in italics .

By these provisions, irregular combatants whom both the government of the United States in the American Civil War and the German government in the Franco-German War refused to regard as legitimate belligerents, are now made legally so .2 I The See also:

• PREAMBLE (Med. Lat. praeambulum, from praeambulare, to walk before)

preamble of the Convention refers specially to Articles 1 and 2 in the following terms: " In the view of the High Contracting Parties, these provisions, the drafting of which has been inspired by the See also:

• DESIRE

desire to diminish the evils of war so far as military necessities permit, are destined to serve as general rules of conduct for belligerents in their relations with each other and with populations; " It has not, however, been possible to agree forthwith on provisions embracing all the circumstances which occur in practice; " On the other hand, it could not be intended by the High Contracting Parties that the cases not provided for should, for want of a written See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision, be See also:

• LEFT

left to the arbitrary See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment of the military commanders; " Until a more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code of the laws of war is issued, the High Contracting Parties think it expedient to declare that in cases not included in the Regulations adopted by them, populations and belligerents remain under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection and See also:

• EMPIRE

empire of the principles of international law, as they result from the usages established among civilized nations, from the laws of humanity, and the requirements of the public See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience; " They declare that it is in this sense especially that Articles 1 and 2 of the regulations adopted must be understood." x The instructions for the government of armies of the United States in the field, issued in 1863, provided: " Men or squads of men who commit hostilities, whether by fighting or inroads for destruction or See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder, or by raids of any See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, without See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission, without being part and portion of the organized hostile army, and without sharing continuously in the war, but who do so with intermitting returns to their homes and avocation, or with the occasional See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of the semblance of peaceful pursuits, divesting themselves of the character or See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of soldiers—such men or squads of men are not public enemies, and therefore, if captured, are not entitled to the See also:

• PRIVILEGE

privilege of prisoners of war, but shall be treated summarily as See also:

• HIGHWAY

highway robbers or pirates." See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany seven years later declined to recognize the regular bands of francs-tireurs unless each individual member of them had been personally called out by legal authority, and wore a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform or badge, irremovable and sufficient to distinguish him at a distance . The older publicists were, on the whole, strongly opposed to the legalization of irregular troops . Hallock settles the question in a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary way by calling those who engage in See also:

• PARTISAN, or PARTIZAN

partisan warfare, robbers and murderers, and declaring that when captured they are to be treated as criminals (International Law, See also:

• CHAP

chap. xviii. s . 8) . It is easy to understand the unfavourable opinion of partisan bands usually ex-pressed by the military authorities when the enormous power for damage of modern arms is considered . At the See also:

• BRUSSELS (Fr. Bruxelles, Flem. Brussel)

Brussels See also:

• CONFERENCE

Conference of 1874 the representatives of the great military See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

Powers of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

Continent naturally desired to keep spontaneous movements within the narrowest possible bounds, while the delegates from the secondary states, who have to rely for their defence chiefly upon the patriotism of their people, endeavoured to widen the right of resistance to an invader . Finally the Conference adopted the provisions which were later formally recognized at the Hague Conference (see British State Papers See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

Miscellaneous, No . 1, 1875, pp . 252-257) . It is noteworthy that both at the Brussels and the Hague Conferences the British delegate ranged himself on the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the smaller states in favour of the recognition of See also:

• GUERRILLA (erroneously written " guerilla," being the diminutive of the Span. guerra, war)

guerrilla bands . At the Hague Conference See also:

• SIR

Sir John Ardagh gave See also:

• NOTICE

notice of his intention to propose an additional Article, to the effect that nothing in the Regulations should " be considered as tending to diminish or suppress the right which belongs to the population of an invaded country patriotically to oppose the most energetic resistance by every legitimate means." The upshot of this notice was to cause the insertion of a proviso in the preamble of the Connected with the position of private persons in time of war is that of their property in invaded territory, a subject which has often been misunderstood . Assertions Enemy as to its See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture in warfare on land property have been made which are historically inaccurate on invaded and are not borne out by contemporary usage .

No territory. doubt contemporary usage is an improvement on older usage . An invading army, before the practice of war became more refined, lived by foraging and pillage in the invaded country; pillage, in fact, being one of the inducements held out to the adventurers who formed part of the fighting forces either as officers or as common soldiers, and this continued down to comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent times . Attenuations followed from the rise of standing and regular armies, and the consequent more marked distinction between soldier and civilian . They have now taken the form of systematic requisitions and contributions, the confining of the right of levying these to generals and commanders-in-See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief, the institution of quittances or bills See also:

• DRAWN

drawn by the belligerent invader on the invaded power and handed in See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment to the private persons whose movable belongings have been appropriated or used, and of war indemnities . These are methods of lessening the hardships of war as regards the private property on land of the subjects of belligerent states . Their See also:

• OBJECT

object and effect have by no means been to arrive at immunity, but to develop an organized See also:

• SYSTEM

system by which damage and losses to individuals, whom the fortune of war has brought into immediate contact with the enemy, are spread over the whole community . There is thus no immunity of private property in warfare on land, and the Hague War-Regulations, far from declaring the contrary, have ratified the right of See also:

• APPROPRIATION (from Lat. appropriare, to set aside)

appropriation of private property in the following Article: " Neither requisitions in kind nor services can be demanded from communes or inhabitants except for the necessities of the army of occupation . They must be in proportion to the resources of the country, and of such a nature as not to involve the population in the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation of taking part in military operations against their country . " These requisitions and services shall only be demanded on the authority of the See also:

• COMMANDER

Commander in the locality occupied . " The contributions in kind shall, as far as possible, be paid for in ready See also:

• MONEY

money; if not, their See also:

• RECEIPT (M.E. receite, derived through Fr. from Lat. recepta, participle of recipere, to receive)

receipt shall be acknowledged and the payment of the amounts due shall be made as soon as possible " (Article 52) . In another Article provision, moreover, is made for the utilization of property in kind belonging to private persons:-- " An army of occupation can only take possession of the See also:

• CASH

cash, funds and property liable to requisition belonging strictly to the state, depots of arms, means of transport, stores and supplies, and, generally, all movable property of the state which may be used for military operations . " All appliances, whether on land, at sea, or in the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air adapted for the transmission of See also:

• NEWS

news, or for the transport of persons or things, exclusive of cases governed by See also:

• NAVAL

naval law, depots of arms, and generally, all kinds of ammunition of war, may be seized, even if they belong to private individuals, but must be restored and See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation fixed when peace is made." Utilizable neutral See also:

• ROLLING

rolling-stock is not excepted, Article ig of the Convention on the rights and duties of neutral powers and persons in war on land only providing that " The plant of See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways coming from neutral states, whether the property of those states, or of companies, or of private persons, and recognizable as such, shall be sent back as soon as possible to the country of origin." Enemy property at sea is subject to different rules from those which govern it on land .

It is liable to capture and See also:

• CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

confiscation wherever found on the high seas or in enemy See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters . The United States has made strenuous Enemy efforts to get this See also:

• RULE

rule of maritime warfare altered, at sea. and immunity from capture accepted as the law of the sea . It has even made this a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of its See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession to the Declaration of Paris (see NEUTRALITY) . But thus far other powers have shown no disposition to agree to any alteration . At the Hague Conferences the United States raised the question again, but thus far all that has been done has been to ratify Convention-denying the right of military commanders to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord- ing to their own arbitrary judgment (See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

Parliamentary Papers, No . 1, 1899, c . 9534)• existing exemptions . The considerations which have led See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man-kind to systematize the practice of war in regard to private property on land do not arise in the same form in connexion with private property at sea . Here there is no question of seizing the live stock, or the bedding, or the See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, or the utensils of the private citizen . If See also:

• SHIP

ship and cargo are captured, it may be hard upon the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant, but such captures do not directly deprive him of the necessaries of See also:

• LIFE

life . Yet, as in the case of war on land, its hardships have been attenuated, and progress has been made by developing a more systematic See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure of capture of private property at sea . Thus exemption from capture is now allowed by belligerents to enemy merchant ships which, at the outbreak of war, are on the way to one of their ports, and they also allow enemy merchantmen in their ports at its outbreak a certain time to leave them .

This is confirmed by the Hague Convention of 1907 on the status of enemy ships on the outbreak of hostilities . A somewhat similar practice exists as regards pursuit of merchant ships which happen to be in a neutral See also:

• PORT

port at the same time with an enemy cruiser . Under the Hague Convention of 1907 respecting the rights and duties of neutral powers in naval war (Art . 16), this, too, is confirmed . Lastly, there has grown up, on grounds similar to those which have led to the See also:

• INDULGENCE (Lat. indulgentia, indulgere, to grant, concede)

indulgence shown to private property on land, a now generally recognized immunity from capture of small vessels engaged in the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries, provided they are in no See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise made to serve the purposes of war, which also has been duly confirmed in the Hague Conventions of 1907 by Art . 3 of the convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise of the right of capture in maritime war . This has all been done with the object of making the operations of war systematic, and enabling the private citizen to estimate his risks and take the necessary precautions to avoid capture, and of restricting acts of war to the purpose of bringing it to a speedy conclusion . We have seen that the only immunity of private property yet known to the laws of war is a limited one at sea . War, by its very nature, seems to prevent the growth of any such immunity . The tendency in war on land has been to spread its effects over the whole community, to keep a faithful See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record on both sides of all confiscations, appropriations and services enforced against private citizens; beyond this, protection has not yet been extended . There is good reason for this . The object of each belligerent being to break the enemy's power and force him to See also:

• SUE, EUGENE [JosEPH MARIE] (1804—1857)

sue for peace, it may not be enough to defeat him in the open field; it may be necessary to prevent him from repairing his loss both in men and in the munitions of war .

This may imply crippling his material resources, trade and manufactures . It has been contended that " to capture at sea raw materials used in the manufacturing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of a belligerent state, or products on the saie of which its prosperity, and therefore its taxable See also:

• SOURCES

sources depend, is necessarily one of the objects, and one of the least cruel, which the belligerents pursue . To capture the merchant vessels which carry these goods, and even to keep the See also:

• SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO

seamen navigating them prisoners, is to prevent the employment of the ships by the enemy as transports or cruisers, and the repairing from among the seamen of the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile marine of losses of men in the See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official navy." 1 The question of reform of the existing practice would naturally be viewed in different countries according to their respective interests . The United States has obviously an interest in the exemption of its merchant vessels and cargoes from capture, a small official navy being sufficient for the assertion of its ascendancy on the American continent . It may also be presumed to be in the interest of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, who, in a treaty with the United States in 1871, provided for mutual recognition of the exemption . In the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 the principle of inviolability was adhered to by both parties . Germany proclaimed the same principle in 1870, but afterwards abandoned it . There is a strong movement in Great Britain in favour of the general See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of immunity . Whether it may now be expedient for her to agree to such immunity is an open question . It is 1 See also:

• BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1476-1552)
• BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621)
• BARCLAY, JOHN (1734-1798)
• BARCLAY, R
• BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690)
• BARCLAY, WILLIAM (1546–1608)

Barclay, " Proposed Immunity of Private Property at Sea from Capture by Enemy," Law Quarterly See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (See also:

• JANUARY

January 1900).quite conceivable, however, that different considerations would weigh with her in a war with the United States from those which would arise in a war with France or Germany . In the case of the United States it might be in the interest of both parties to localize the operations of war, and to interfere as little as possible, perhaps for the See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint exclusion of neutral vessels, with the traffic across the Atlantic . In the case of a war with France or Germany, Great Britain might consider that the closing of the high sea to all traffic by the merchantmen of the enemy would be very much in her own interest .

The converse subject of the treatment of subjects of the one belligerent who remain in the country of the other belligerent also was not dealt with at the Hague . British practice in this See also:

• MATTER

matter has always been indulgent, the protection to the persons and property of non-combatant enemies on British See also:

• SOIL

soil dating back to Magna Carta (s . 48), and this is still the law of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England . The practice on the continent of Europe varies according to circumstances, to which no doubt, in the event of the invasion of Great Britain, British practice would also have to adapt itself . The Hague War-Regulations See also:

• DEAL

deal fully with the treatment of prisoners, and though they add nothing to existing practice, such treatment is no longer in the discretion of,v:r rs of war of the signatory Powers, but is binding on them . They provide as follows: Prisoners of war are in the power of the hostile government, but not in that of the individuals or corps who captured them . They must be humanely treated . All their See also:

• PERSONAL

personal belongings, except arms, horses and military papers, remain their property (Article