See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, and Abyor, See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science)  , the See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science which investigates the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth . Its See also:

• OBJECT

object is to trace the structural progress of .our See also:

• PLANET (Gr. ssXavirrns, a wanderer)

planet from the earliest beginnings of its See also:

• SEPARATE

separate existence, through its various stages of growth, down to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of things . It seeks to determine the manner in which the See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution of the earth's See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• SURFACE

surface features has been effected . It unravels the complicated processes by which each See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent has been built up . It follows, even into detail, the varied See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain and valley, See also:

• CRAG (a Celtic word, cf. Gael. creag, Manx creg, and Welsh and modern Scots craig)

crag and See also:

• RAVINE

ravine . Nor does it confine itself merely to changes in the inorganic See also:

• WORLD

world . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology shows that the present races of See also:

• PLANTS

plants and animals are the descendants of other and very different races which once peopled the earth . It teaches that there has been a progressive development. of the inhabitants, as well as one of the globe on which they have dwelt; that each successive See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period in the earth's history, since the introduction of living things, has been marked by characteristic types of the See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal and See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable kingdoms; and that, however imperfectly the remains of these organisms have been preserved or may be deciphered, materials exist for a history of See also:

• LIFE

life upon the planet . The See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of existing faunas and floras is often made clear and intelligible by See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence; and in the same way See also:

• LIGHT

light is thrown upon some of the remoter phases in the history of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man himself . A subject so comprehensive as this must require a wide and varied basis of evidence . It is one of the characteristics of geology to gather evidence from See also:

• SOURCES

sources which at first sight seem far removed from its See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope, and to seek aid from almost every other leading See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of science . Thus, in dealing with the earliest conditions of the planet, the geologist must fully avail himself of the labours of the astronomer .

Whatever is ascertainable by See also:

• TELESCOPE

telescope, spectroscope or chemical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis, regarding the constitution of other heavenly bodies, has a geological bearing . The experiments of the physicist, undertaken to determine conditions of See also:

• MATTER

matter and of See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy, may sometimes be taken as the starting-points of geological investigation . The See also:

• WORK

work of the chemical laboratory forms the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of a vast and increasing See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of geological inquiry . To the botanist, the zoologist, even to the unscientific, if observant, traveller by See also:

• LAND

land or See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, the geologist turns for See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information and assistance . But while thus culling freely from the dominions of other sciences, geology claims as its See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar territory the rocky framework of the globe . In the materials composing that framework, their See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and arrangement, the processes of their formation, the changes which they have undergone, and the terrestrial revolutions to which they See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness, See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main data of geological history . It is the task of the geologist to See also:

• GROUP

group these elements in such a way that they may be made to yield up their evidence as to the See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

march of events in the evolution of the planet . He finds that they have in large measure arranged themselves in See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological sequence,—theoldest lying at the bottom and the newest at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top . See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

Relics of an See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient sea-See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor are overlain by traces of a vanished land-surface; these are in turn covered by the deposits ., of a former See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake, above which once more appear proofs of the return of the sea . Among these rocky records lie the lavas and ashes of See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long-See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct volcanoes . The ripple See also:

• LEFT

left upon the See also:

• SHORE

shore, the cracks formed by the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun's See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat upon the muddy bottom of a dried-up See also:

• POOL

pool, the very imprint of the drops of a passing See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain-shower, have all been accurately preserved, and yield their evidence as to geographical conditions often widely different from those which exist where such markings are now found . But it is mainly by the remains of plants and animals imbedded in the rocks that the geologist is guided in unravelling; the chronological See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of geological changes .

He has found that a certain See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance characterizes these organic remains, that each great group of rocks is marked by its own See also:

• SPECIAL

special types of life, and that these types can he recognized, and the rocks in which they occur can be correlated even in distant countries, and where no other means of comparison would be possible . At one moment he has to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the bones of some large mammal scattered through a See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit of superficial See also:

• GRAVEL, or PEBBLE BEDS

gravel,at another See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time with the See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute foraminifers and See also:

• OSTRA

ostra'cdds of an upraised sea-bottom . See also:

• CORALS (KoRAis), ADAMANTIOS [in French, DIAMANT CORAY] (1748–1833)

Corals and crinoids crowded and crushed into a massive See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone where they lived and died, ferns and terrestrial plants matted together into a See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of See also:

• COAL

coal where they originally See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew, the scattered shells of a submarine See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand-See also:

• BANK

bank, the snails and lizards which lived and died within a hollow-See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree, the See also:

• INSECTS

insects which have been imprisoned within the exuding See also:

• RESIN (through O.Fr. resine, modern reline, from Lat. resina, prcbably Latinized from Greek Pirivrt, resin)

resin of old forests, the footprints of birds and quadrupeds, the trails of. See also:

• WORMS

worms left upon former shores—these, and innumerable other pieces of evidence, enable the geologist to realize in some measure what the faunas and floras of successive periods have been, and what geographical changes the site of every land has undergone . It is evident that to deal successfully with these varied materials, a considerable acquaintance with different branches of science is needful . Especially necessary is a tolerably wide knowledge of the processes now at work in changing the surface of the earth, and of at least those forms of plant and animal life whose remains are See also:

• APT

apt to be preserved in geological deposits, or which in their structure and See also:

• HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare, to dwell)

habitat enable us to realize 'what their forerunners were . It has often been, insisted that the present is the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the past; and in a wide sense this assertion is eminently true . Only in proportion as we understand the present, where everything is open on all sides to the fullest investigation, can we expect to decipher the past, where so much is obscure, imperfectly preserved or not preserved at all . A study of the existing See also:

• ECONOMY

economy of nature ought thus to be the foundation of the geologist's training . While, however, the present condition of things is thus employed, we must obviously be on our guard against the danger of unconsciously assuming that the phase of nature's operations which we now witness has been the same in all past time, that geological changes have always or generally taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place in former ages in the manner and on the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale which we behold to-See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, and that at the present time all the great geological processes, which have produced changes in the past eras of the earth's history, are still existent and active . As a working See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis we may suppose that the nature of geological processes has remained See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant from the beginning; but we cannot postulate that the See also:

• ACTION

action of these processes has never varied in energy . The few centuries wherein man has been observing nature obviously See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form much too brief an See also:

• INTERVAL

interval by which to measure the intensity of geological action in all past time.', ' For 'aught we can tell the present is an era of quietude and slow See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, compared with some of the eras which have preceded it . Nor perhaps can we be quite sure that, when we have explored every geological See also:

• PROCESS

process now in progress, we have exhausted all the causes of change which, even in comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent times, have been at work .