See also:

• GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the sea, or " Passes ")

GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, or " Passes ")  , two ranges of mountains extending along the eastern and western shores of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula . The word properly applies to the passes through the mountains, but from an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early date was transferred by Europeans to the mountains themselves . The Eastern See also:

• GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the sea, or " Passes ")

Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges down the See also:

• MADRAS

Madras See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . They begin in the See also:

• ORISSA

Orissa See also:

• DISTRICT

district of See also:

• BALASORE

Balasore, pass southwards through See also:

• CUTTACK

Cuttack and See also:

• PURI, or JAGANNATH

Puri, enter the Madras See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency in See also:

• GANJAM

Ganjam, and sweep southwards through the districts of See also:

• VIZAGAPATAM

Vizagapatam, See also:

• GODAVARI

Godavari, See also:

• NELLORE

Nellore, See also:

• CHINGLEPUT, or CHENGALPAT

Chingleput, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• ARCOT

Arcot, See also:

• TRICHINOPOLY

Trichinopoly and See also:

• TINNEVELLY

Tinnevelly . They run at a distance of 5o to 150 M. from the coast, except in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the See also:

• BAY

Bay of See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal . Their See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological formation is See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, with See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and See also:

• MICA

mica See also:

• SLATE (properly CLAY SLATE; in M. Eng. slat or sclat, from O. Fr. esclat, a small piece of wood used as a tile; esclater, to break into pieces, whence modern Fr. eclat, the root being seen also in Ger. schleissen, to split)

slate, with See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay slate, See also:

• HORNBLENDE

hornblende and See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone overlying . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation is about 1500 ft., but several hills in Ganjam are between 4000 and 5000 ft. high . For the most See also:

• PART

part there is a broad expanse of See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low See also:

• LAND

land between their See also:

• BASE

base and the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, and their See also:

• LINE

line is pierced by the Godavari, See also:

• KISTNA (or KRISHNA)
• KISTNA, or KRISHNA

Kistna and See also:

• CAUVERY, or KAVERI

Cauvery See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers . The Western Ghats (See also:

• SAHYADRI

Sahyadri in See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit) start from the south of the See also:

• TAPTI

Tapti valley, and run south through the districts of See also:

• KHANDESH, EAST

Khandesh, See also:

• NASIK

Nasik, See also:

• THANA, or TANNA (=a fort, or police-station)

Thana, See also:

• SATARA

Satara, See also:

• RATNAGIRI

Ratnagiri, See also:

• KANARA, or CANARA

Kanara and See also:

• MALABAR

Malabar, and the states of See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin and See also:

• TRAVANCORE

Travancore, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting the Eastern Ghats at an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle near Cape See also:

• COMORIN, CAPE

Comorin . The range of the Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the exception of a See also:

• GAP

gap or valley 25 M. across, known as the See also:

• PALGHAT

Palghat gap, through which runs the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal railway of the south of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . The length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap, and south of this about 200 M. to the extreme south of the peninsula . In many parts there is only a narrow See also:

• STRIP

strip of coast between the hills and the sea; at one point they rise in magnificent precipices and headlands out of the ocean .

The average elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the western See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side facing the sea, but with a more See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual slope on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east to the plains below . The highest peaks in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section are Kalsubai, 5427 ft.; Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and See also:

• MAHABALESHWAR, or MALCOLMPETH

Mahabaleshwar, where is the summer See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of Bombay, 4700 ft . South of Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases, and attains its maximum towards See also:

• COORG (an anglicized corruption of Kodagu, said to be derived from the Kanarese Kudu, " steep," " hilly ")

Coorg, where the highest peaks vary from 5500 to 7000 ft., and where the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main range joins the interior Nilgiri hills . South of the' Palghat gap, the peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as 8000 ft . The geological; formation is See also:

• TRAP (0. Eng. treppe or traepee, properly a step, as that or which an animal places its foot and is caught, cf. Ger. Treppe flight of stairs)

trap in the northern and gneiss in the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern section . GHAZAL ! [Muhammad See also:

• IBN

ibn Muhammad See also:

• ABU

Abu IJamid al-Ghazali] (ro58-1III), Arabian philosopher and theologian, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at Tus, and belonged to a See also:

• FAMILY

family of Ghazala (near Tus) distinguished for its knowledge of See also:

• CANON

canon See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . Educated at first in 'Pas, then in Jorjan, and again in 'Pas, he went to See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college at See also:

• NISHAPUR
• NISHAPUR (Old Pers. Nev-shdpur-nev, New Pers. niv, nik= good; Arab. Naisabur)

Nishapur, where he studied under Juwaini (known as the Sixty-nine See also:

• WORKS

works are ascribed to Ghazali (cf . C . Brockelmann's Gesch. d. arabischen Litteratur, i . 421-426, See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar, 1898) . The most important of those which have been published are: a See also:

• TREATISE

treatise on See also:

• ESCHATOLOGY
• ESCHATOLOGY (Gr. &rXaros, last, and A6yos, science; the " doctrine of last things ")

eschatology called Ad-See also:

• DURRA
• DURRA (also written dourah, dhura, &c.; Arabic for a pearl, hence a grain of corn)

durra ul-fakhira (" The See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl "), ed .

L . See also:

• GAUTIER
• GAUTIER, EMILE THEODORE LEON (1832-1897)
• GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872)

Gautier (See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva, 1878) ; the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• WORK

work, Ihya ul-' Ulum (" Revival of the sciences ") (Bulaq, 1872; See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo, 1889); see a commentary by al-Murtada called the Ithaf, published in 13 vols. at See also:

• FEZ (Fes)

Fez, 1885-1887, and in to vols. at Cairo, 1893; the Bidayat ul-Hidaya (Bulaq, 187o, and often at Cairo); a compendium of See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, Mizan ul-'See also:

• AMAL

Amal, translated into See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew, ed . J . Goldenthal (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1839) ; a more popular treatise on ethics, the Kimlya us-Sa'ada, published at See also:

• LUCKNOW

Lucknow, Bombay and See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople, ed . H . A . Homes as The See also:

• ALCHEMY

Alchemy of Happiness (See also:

• ALBANY
• ALBANY, DUKES OF
• ALBANY, LOUISE MAXIMILIENNE CAROLINE, COUNTESS OF (1752-1824)

Albany, N.Y., 1873) ; the ethical work 0 See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

Child, ed. by See also:

• HAMMER, FRIEDRICH JULIUS (1810-1862)

Hammer-Purgstall in Arabic and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1838) ; the Destruction of Philosophers (Tahafut ul-Falasifa) (Cairo, 1885, and Bombay, 1887) . Of this work a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation was begun by Carra de See also:

• VAUX, CALVERT (1824-1895)

Vaux in Museon, vol. xviii . (1899) ; the Magasid ul-Falasifa, of which the first part on See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic was translated into Latin by Dom . Gundisalvi (See also:

• VENICE
• VENICE (continued)
• VENICE (Venezia)

Venice, i5o6), ed. with notes by G . See also:

• BEER

Beer (See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1888) ; the Kitab ul-Munqid, giving an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the changes in his philosophical ideas, ed. by F . A .

Schmelders in his Essai sur See also:

• LES

les ecoles philosophiques chez les Arabes (Paris, 1842), also printed at Constantinople, 1876, and translated into French by See also:

• BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE (1765–1825)
• BARBIER, HENRI AUGUSTE (1805-1882)
• BARBIER, LOUIS

Barbier de Meynard in the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal asiatique (1877, i . 1-93); answers to questions asked of him ed. in Arabic and Hebrew, with German translation and notes by H . See also:

• MATTER

Matter (See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort, 1896); Eng. trans., Confessions of al-Ghazzali, by Claud See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

Field (1909) . For Ghazali's See also:

• LIFE

life see McG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan, ii . 621 ff . ; R . Gesche's Uber Ghazzali's Leben and Werke (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1859) ; D . B . See also:

• MACDONALD, FLORA (1722—1790)
• MACDONALD, GEORGE (1824-1905)
• MACDONALD, JACQUES ETIENNE JOSEPH
• MACDONALD, JOHN SANDFIELD (1812-1872)
• MACDONALD, LAWRENCE (1799-1878)
• MACDONALD, SIR HECTOR ARCHIBALD (1852-1903)
• MACDONALD, SIR JOHN ALEXANDER (1815-1891)

Macdonald's " Life of al-Ghazzali," in Journal of See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental Society, vol. xx . (f899), and Carra de Vaux's Gazali (Paris, 1902) ; see ARABIAN See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

PHILOSOPHY . (G . W .