See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from See also:

• LAT

Lat. gubernare, to See also:

• STEER, PAUL WILSON (186o– )

steer a See also:

• SHIP

ship, See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide, See also:

• RULE

rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)  , in its widest sense, the ruling See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power in a See also:

• POLITICAL

political society . In every society of men there is a determinate See also:

• BODY

body (whether consisting of one individual or a few or many individuals) whose commands the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of the community are See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to obey . This See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign body is what in more popular phrase is termed the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, and the varieties which may exist in its constitution are known as forms of government . For the opposite theory of a community with " n0 government," see See also:

• ANARCHISM (from the Gr. av-, and (Ipxrt, contrary to authority)

ANARCHISM . How did government come into existence ? Various answers to this question have at times been given, which may be distinguished broadly into three classes . The first class would comprehend the legendary accounts which nations have given in See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive times of their own forms of government . These are always attributed to the mind of a single lawgiver . The government of See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta was the invention of See also:

• LYCURGUS
• LYCURGUS (c. 396–325 B.C.)
• LYCURGUS (Gr. AvKofpyor)

Lycurgus . See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon, See also:

• MOSES (Gr. Mwvo c, Mcoo-i3s)
• MOSES, ASSUMPTION OF

Moses, Numa and See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred in like manner shaped the government of their respective nations . There was no curiosity about the institutions of other nations—about the origin of governments in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general; and each nation was perfectly ready to accept the traditional vop00h-cu of any other . The second May be called the logical or metaphysical See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the origin of government .

It contained no overt reference to any particular See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of government, whatever its covert references may have been . It answered the question, how government in general came into existence; and it answered it by a logical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of the elements of society . The phenomenon to be accounted for being government and See also:

• LAWS

laws, it abstracted government and laws, and contemplated mankind as existing without them . The characteristic feature of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation is that it reflects how contemporary men would behave if all government were removed, and infers that men must have behaved so before government came into existence . Society without government resolves itself into a number of individuals each following his own aims, and therefore, in the days before government, each See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man followed his own aims . It is easy to see how this kind of reasoning should See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to very different views of the nature of the supposed See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . With See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes, it is a state of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, and government is the result of an agreement among men to keep the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace . With See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke, it is a state of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty and equality,—it is not a state of war; it is governed by its own See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law,—the law of nature, which is the same thing as the law of See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The state of nature is brought to an end by the voluntary agreement of individuals to surrender their natural liberty and submit themselves to one supreme government . In the words of Locke, " Men being by nature all See also:

• FREE

free, equal and See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent, no one can be put out of this See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate and subjected to the political power of another without his own consent . The only way whereby any one divests himself of his natural liberty, and puts on the bonds of See also:

• CIVIL

civil society, is by agreeing with other men to join and unite into a community " (On Civil Government, c. viii.) . Locke boldly defends his theory as founded on See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical fact, and it is amusing to compare his demonstration of the baselessness of See also:

• SIR

Sir R .

See also:

• FILMER, SIR ROBERT (d. 1653)

Filmer's speculations with the scanty and doubtful examples which he accepts as the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of his own . But in general the various forms of the See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis eliminate the question of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time altogether . The original See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract from which government sprang is likewise the subsisting contract on which civil society continues to be based . The historical weakness of the theory was probably always recognized . Its logical inadequacy was conclusively demonstrated by See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• AUSTIN
• AUSTIN, ALFRED
• AUSTIN, JOHN (179o-1859)
• AUSTIN, SARAH (1793-1867)
• AUSTIN, STEPHEN FULLER (1793-1836)

Austin . But it still clings to speculations on the principles of government . The " social compact " (see See also:

• ROUSSEAU, JACQUES (1633-1693)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1671-1741)
• ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES (1712-1778)
• ROUSSEAU, PIERRE ETIENNE THEODORE (1812–1867); French painter of the Barbizon school, was born in Paris on the 15th of April 1812, of a bourgeois family which included one or two artists. At first he received a business training, but soon displayed aptitu

RoussEAu) is the most famous of the metaphysical explanations of government . It has had the largest See also:

• HISTORY

history, the widest See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and the most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete development . To the same class belong the various forms of the theory that governments exist by divine See also:

• APPOINTMENT, POWER OF

appointment . Of all that has been written about the divine right of See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, a See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• DEAL

deal must be set down to the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere flatteries of courtiers and ecclesiastics . But there remains a genuine belief that men are bound to obey their rulers because their rulers have been appointed by See also:

• GOD

God . Like the social compact, the theory of divine appointment avoided the question of historical fact .

The application of the historical method to the phenomena of society has changed the aspect of the question and robbed it of its political See also:

• INTEREST

interest . The student of the history of society has no See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express the law by which government is See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born . All that he can do is to trace governmental forms through various stages of social development . The more complex and the larger the society, the more distinct is the separation between the governing See also:

• PART

part and the rest, and the more elaborate is the subdivision of functions in the government . The primitive type of ruler is See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge, See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest and general . At the same time, his way of See also:

• LIFE

life differs little from that of his followers and subjects . The metaphysical theories were so far right in imputing greater equality of social conditions to more primitive times . Increase of bulk brings with it a more complex socialorganization . War tends to develop the strength of the governmental organization; peace relaxes it . All See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies of men exhibit the germs of government; but there would appear to be races of men so See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low that they cannot be said to live together in society at all . See also:

• MODERN

Modern investigations have illustrated very fully the importance of the See also:

• FAMILY

family (q.v.) in primitive societies, and the belief in a See also:

• COMMON

common descent has much to do with the social cohesion of a tribe . The government of a tribe resembles the government of a See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household; the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the family is the ruler .

But we cannot affirm that political government has its origin in family government, or that there may not have been states of society in which government of some sort existed while the family did not . I . FORMS OF GOVERNMENT Three See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

Standard Forms.—Political writers from the time of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle have been singularly unanimous in their See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of the forms of government . There are three ways in which states may be governed . They may be governed by one man, or by a number of men, small in proportion to the whole number of men in the state, or by a number large in proportion to the whole number of men in the state . The government may be a See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy, an See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy or a See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy . The same terms are used by John Austin as were used by Aristotle, and in very nearly the same sense . The determining quality in governments in both writers, and it may safely be said in all intermediate writers, is the numerical relation between the constituent members of the government and the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the state . There were, of course, enormous See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between the state-systems See also:

• PRESENT

present to the mind of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek philosopher and the See also:

• ENGLISH

English jurist . Aristotle was thinking of the small independent states of See also:

• GREECE

Greece, Austin of the great peoples of modern See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . The unit of government in the one See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case was a See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, in the other a nation . This difference is of itself enough to invalidate all generalization founded on the common terminology .

But on one point there is a complete parallel between the politics of Aristotle and the politics of Austin . The Greek cities were to the rest of the See also:

• WORLD

world very much what See also:

• EUROPEAN

European nations and European colonies are to the rest of the world now . They were the only communities in which the governed visibly took some See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share in the See also:

• WORK

work of government . Outside the European See also:

• SYSTEM

system, as outside the Greek system, we have only the stereotyped uniformity of despotism, whether See also:

• SAVAGE
• SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841– )
• SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743)

savage or civilized . The question of forms of government, therefore, belongs characteristically to the European races . The virtues and defects of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy are the virtues and defects manifested by the historical governments of Europe . The generality of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language used by political writers must not See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind us to the fact that they are thinking only of a comparatively small portion of mankind . Greek Politics . Aristotle divides governments according to two principles . In all states the governing power seeks either its own See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage or the advantage of the whole state, and the government is See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad or See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good accordingly . In all states the governing power is one man, or a few men or many men . Hence six varieties of government, three of which are bad and three good .

Each excellent form has a corresponding depraved form; thus: The good government of one (Monarchy) corresponds to the depraved form (Tyranny) . The good government of few (Aristocracy) corresponds to the depraved form (See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

Oligarchy) . The good government of many (See also:

• COMMONWEALTH

Commonwealth) corresponds to the depraved form (Democracy) . The See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault of the depraved forms is that the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act unjustly where their own interests are concerned . The worst of the depraved forms is tyranny, the next oligarchy and the least bad democracy ?. Each of the three leading types exhibits a number of varieties . Thus in monarchy we have the heroic, the barbaric, the elective dictatorship, the Lacedemonian (hereditary generalship, arpargyia), and See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute monarchy . So democracy and oligarchy exhibit four corresponding varieties . The best type of democracy is that of a community mainly agricultural, whose citizens, therefore, have not leisure for political affairs, and allow the law to See also:

• RULE

rule . The best oligarchy is that in which a considerable number of small proprietors have the power; here, too, the laws prevail . The worst democracy consists of a larger See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen class having leisure for politics; and the worst oligarchy is that of a small number of very See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and influential men . In both the See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of law is reduced to a minimum .

A good government is one in which as much as possible is See also:

• LEFT

left to the laws, and as little as possible to the will of the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor . Aristotle elsewhere speaks of the See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error of those who think that any one of the depraved forms is better than any other . The Politics of Aristotle, from which these principles are taken, presents a striking picture of the variety and activity of political life in the free communities of Greece . The king and See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of heroic times had disappeared, and self-government in some form or other was the general rule . It is to be noticed, however, that the governments of Greece were essentially unstable . The political philosophers could See also:

• LAY

lay down the law of development by which one form of government gives See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to another . Aristotle devotes a large portion of his work to the See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the causes of revolutions . The dread of tyranny was kept alive by the facility with which an over-powerful and unscrupulous citizen could seize the whole machinery of government . Communities oscillated between some form of oligarchy and some form of democracy . The See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of each was constantly imperilled by the conspiracies of the opposing factions . Hence, although political life exhibits that exuberant variety of form and expression which characterizes all the intellectual products of Greece, it lacks the quality of persistent progress . Then there was no approximation to a See also:

• NATIONAL

national government, even of the federal type .

The varying confederacies and hegemonies are the nearest approach to anything of the kind . What kind of national government would ultimately have arisen if Greece had not been crushed it is needless to conjecture; the true interest of Greek politics lies in the fact that the free citizens were, in the strictest sense of the word, self-governed . Each citizen took his turn at the common business of the state . He spoke his own views in the See also:

• AGORA

agora, and from time to time in his own See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person acted as See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate or judge . Citizenship in See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was a liberal See also:

• EDUCATION

education, such as it never can be made under any representative system . The Government of See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome.—During the whole See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of freedom the government of Rome was, in theory at least, municipal self-government . Each citizen had a right to See also:

• VOTE

vote laws in his own person in the See also:

• COMITIA

comitia of the centuries or the tribes . The administrative See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of government were, however, in the hands of a bureaucratic See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly, recruited from the holders of high public See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office . The See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

senate represented capacity and experience rather than See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and See also:

• WEALTH

wealth . Without some such See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument the city government of Rome could never have made the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of the world . The See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of the citizenship to other Italians changed the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of See also:

• ROMAN

Roman government . The distant citizens could not come to the voting booths; the See also:

• DEVICE

device of See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation was not discovered; and the comitia See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the power of the See also:

• TOWN

town voters .

In the last See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of the Roman See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic, the inhabitants of one town wielded the resources of a world-wide See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . We can imagine what would be the effect of leaving to the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• LONDON

London or See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris the supreme See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control of the See also:

• BRITISH

British empire or of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France,—irresistible temptation, inevitable corruption . The See also:

• RABBLE

rabble of the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital learn to live on the rest of the empire.' The favour of the effeminate masters of the world is See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased by panem et circenses . That capable See also:

• OFFICERS

officers and victorious armies should See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long be content to serve such masters was impossible . A See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy of generals placed itself at the head of affairs, and the most capable of them made himself See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master . Under See also:

• CAESAR, GAIUS JULIUS (102—44 B.c.)
• CAESAR, SIR JULIUS (1557-1558-1636)

Caesar, See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus and Tiberius, the Roman people became habituated to a new form of government, which is best described by the name of Caesarism . The outward forms of republican government remained, but one man See also:

• UNITED

united in his own person all the leading offices, and used them to give a seemingly legal See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title to what was essentially military despotism . There is no more interesting constitutional study than the chapters in which See also:

• TACITUS, CORNELIUS (c. 55-120)
• TACITUS, MARCUS CLAUDIUS

Tacitus traces the growth of the new system under the subtle and dissimulating See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect of Tiberius . The new Roman empire was as full of See also:

• FICTIONS

fictions as the English constitution of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . The master of the world posed as the humble servant of a See also:

• MENIAL

menial senate . Depre- ' None of the free states of Greece ever made extensive or permanent conquests; but the See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute sometimes paid by one state to another (as by the Aeginetans to the Athenians) was a See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest source, of corruption . Compare the remarks of See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume (Essays, part i .

3, That Politics may be reduced to a See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science), " free governments are the most ruinous and oppressive for their provinces."eating the outward symbols of See also:

• SOVEREIGNTY

sovereignty, he was satisfied with the modest powers of a See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul or a tribunus plebis . The reign of Tiberius, little capable as he was by See also:

• PERSONAL

personal character of captivating the favour of the multitude, did more for imperialism than was done by his more famous predecessors . Henceforward free government all over the world lay crushed beneath the military despotism of Rome . Caesarism remained true to the character imposed upon it by its origin . The Caesar was an elective not an hereditary king . The real foundation of his power was the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, and the army in course of time openly assumed the right of nominating the sovereign . The characteristic weakness of the Roman empire was the uncertainty of the See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession . The nomination of a Caesar in the lifetime of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor was an ineffective remedy . See also:

• RIVAL

Rival emperors were elected by different armies; and nothing less than the force of arms could decide the question between them . Modern Governments.—See also:

• FEUDALISM
• FEUDALISM (from Late Lat. feodum or feudum, a fee or fiel; see FEE)

Feudalism.—The Roman empire bequeathed to modern Europe the theory of universal dominion . The nationalities which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew up after its fall arranged themselves on the basis of territorial sovereignty . Leaving out of account the free municipalities of the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle ages, the problem of government had now to be solved, not for small See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban communities, but for large territorial nations .

The See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval form of government was feudal . One common type pervaded all the relations of life . The relation of king and See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

lord was like the relation between lord and See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal (see FEUDALISM) . The See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond between them was the See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure of See also:

• LAND

land . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England there had been, before the See also:

• NORMAN
• NORMAN, SIR HENRY WYLIE (1826-1904)

Norman Conquest, an approximation to a feudal system . In the earlier English constitution, the most striking features were the power of the See also:

• WITAN, or WITENAGEMOT (from O. Eng. wita, p1. witan, a wise man, and gemot, a meeting, from O. Eng. metan, to meet)

witan, and the common See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the nation in a large portion of the See also:

• SOIL

soil . The steady development of the power of the king kept See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the See also:

• AGGREGATION (from the Lat. ad, to, gregare, to collect together)

aggregation of the English tribes under one king . The conception that the land belonged primarily to the people gave way to the conception that everything belonged primarily to the, king ? The Norman Conquest imposed on England the already highly See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed feudalism of France, and out of this feudalism the free governments of modern Europe have grown . One or two of the leading steps in this See also:

• PROCESS

process may be indicated here . The first, and perhaps the most important, was the device of representation . For an account of its origin, and for instances of its use in England before its application to politics, we must be content to refer to See also:

• STUBBS [STUBBES], PHILIP (c. 1555-c. 161o)
• STUBBS [STUnnE], JOHN
• STUBBS, WILLIAM (1825-1901)

Stubbs's Constitutional History, vol. ii .

The problem of combining a large See also:

• AREA

area of sovereignty with some degree of self-government, which had proved fatal to See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient commonwealths, was henceforward solved . From that time some form of representation has been deemed essential to every constitution professing, however remotely, to be free . The connexion between representation and the feudal system of estates must be shortly noticed . The feudal theory gave the king a limited right to military service and to certain See also:

• AIDS

aids, both of which were utterly inadequate to meet the expenses of the government, especially in time of war . The king therefore had to get contributions from his people, and he consulted them in their respective orders . The three estates were simply the three natural divisions of the people, and Stubbs has pointed out that, in the occasional See also:

• TREATIES

treaties between a necessitous king and the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of merchants or lawyers, we have examples of inchoate estates or sub-estates of the See also:

• REALM

realm . The right of representation was thus in its origin a right to consent to See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation . The pure theory of feudalism had from the beginning been broken by See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William the Conqueror causing all free-holders to take an See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath of See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to himself . The institution of parliaments, and the association of the king's smaller tenants in capite with other commoners, still further removed the 2 Ultimately, in the theory of English law, the king may be said to have become the universal successor of the people . Some of the peculiarities of the See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative rights seem to be explainable only on this view, e.g. the curious distinction between wrecks come to land and wrecks still on See also:

• WATER

water . The common right to wreckage was no doubt the origin of the prerogative right to the former . Every ancient common right has come to be a right of the See also:

• CROWN

crown or a right held of the crown by a vassal .

government from the purely feudal type in which the See also:

• MESNE (an Anglo-French legal form of the O. Fr. meien, mod. moyen, mean, Med. Lat. medianus, in the middle, cf. " mean ")

mesne lord Leading Features of See also:

• PARLIAMENTARY

Parliamentary Government.—The parliamentary government developed by England out of feudal materials has been deliberately accepted as the type of constitutional government all over the world . Its leading features are popular representation more or less extensive, a bicameral legislature, and a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet or consolidated See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry . In connexion with all of these, numberless questions of the highest See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical importance have arisen, the See also:

• BARE

bare enumeration of which would surpass the limits of our space . We shall confine ourselves to a few very general considerations . The Two See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

Chambers.—First, as to the See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double chamber . This, which is perhaps more accidental than any other portion of the British system, has been the most widely imitated . In most European countries, in the British colonies, in the United States See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress, and in the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate states of the See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union,2 there are two houses of legislature . This result has been brought about partly by natural incitation of the accepted type of free government, partly from a conviction that the second chamber will moderate the democratic tendencies of the first . But the elements of the British original cannot be reproduced to order under different conditions . There have, indeed, been a few attempts to imitate the See also:

• SPECIAL

special character of hereditary See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility attaching to the British See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House of Lords . In some countries, where the feudal tradition is still strong (e.g . See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia, See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, See also:

• HUNGARY
• HUNGARY (Hungarian Magyarorszdg)

Hungary), the hereditary See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the upper chambers has survived as truly representative of actual social and economic relations .

But where these social conditions do not obtain (e.g. in France after the Revolution) the See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to establish an hereditary See also:

• PEERAGE
• PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. Pere, 0. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. Paris, " equal ")

peerage on the British See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model has always failed . For the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar solidarity between the British nobility and the general See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of the people, the outcome of special conditions and tendencies, is a result beyond the power of constitution-makers to attain . The British system too, after its own way, has for a long period worked without any serious collision between the Houses,—the See also:

• STANDING

standing and obvious danger of the bicameral system . The actual ministers of the day must possess the confidence of the House of See also:

• COMMONS

Commons; they need not—in fact they often do not—possess the confidence of the House of Lords . It is only in legislation that the See also:

• LOWER

Lower House really shares its powers with the Upper; and (apart from any such See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the constitution as was suggested in 1907 by Sir H . See also:

• CAMPBELL, ALEXANDER (1788–1866)
• CAMPBELL, BEATRICE STELLA (Mrs PATRICK CAMPBELL) (1865– )
• CAMPBELL, GEORGE (1719–1796)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN
• CAMPBELL, JOHN (1708-1775)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN CAMPBELL, BARON (1779-1861)
• CAMPBELL, JOHN FRANCIS
• CAMPBELL, LEWIS (1830-1908)
• CAMPBELL, REGINALD JOHN (1867— )
• CAMPBELL, THOMAS (1777—1844)

Campbell-Bannerman) the constitution possesses, in the unlimited power of nominating peers, a well-understood last resource should the House of Lords persist in refusing important See also:

• MEASURES

measures demanded by the representatives of the people . In the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom it is well understood that the real sovereignty lies with the people (the electorate), and the House of Lords recognizes the principle that it must accept a measure when the popular will has been clearly expressed . In all but measures of first-class importance, however, the House of Lords is a real second chamber, and in these there is little danger of a collision between the Houses . There is the widest possible difference between the British and any other second chamber . In the United States the Senate (constituted on the system of equal representation of states) is the more important of the two Houses, and the only one whose control of the executive can be compared to that exercised by the British House of Commons . The real strength of popular government in England lies in the ultimate supremacy of the House of Commons . That supremacy had been acquired, perhaps to its full extent, before the extension of the See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage made the constituencies democratic .

See also:

• FOREIGN

Foreign imitators, it may be observed, have been more ready to accept a wide basis of representation than to confer real power on the representative body . In all the monarchical countries of' Europe, however unrestricted the right of suffrage may be, the real victory of constitutional government has yet to be won . Where the suffrage means little or nothing, there is little or no reason for guarding it against abuse . The See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of the executive in the United States brings that country, from one 2 For an account of the double chamber system in the state legislatures see UNITED STATES: Constitution and Government, and also S . G . See also:

• FISHER
• FISHER, ALVAN (1792–1863)
• FISHER, GEORGE PARK (1827-1909)
• FISHER, JOHN (c. 1469-1535)
• FISHER, JOHN ARBUTHNOT FISHER, 1ST BARON

Fisher, The See also:

• EVOLUTION

Evolution of the Constitution (See also:

• PHILADELPHIA

Philadelphia, 1897) . stands between the inferior vassal and the king . Parliamentary Government.—The English System.—The right of the commons to share the power of the king and lords in legislation, the exclusive right of the commons to impose taxes, the disappearance of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy as a separate order, were all important steps in the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement towards popular government . The extinction of the old feudal nobility in the dynastic See also:

• WARS

wars of the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century simplified the question by leaving the crown See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face to face with See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament . The immediate result was no doubt an increase in the power of the crown, which probably never stood higher than it did in the reigns of See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry VIII. and See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth; but even these powerful monarchs were studious in their regard for parliamentary conventionalities . After a long period of speculative controversy and civil war, the See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of 1688 established limited monarchy as the government of England . Since that time the See also:

• EXTERNAL

external form of government has remained unchanged, and, so far as legal description goes, the constitution of William III. might be taken for the same system as that which still exists .

The silent changes have, however, been enormous . The most striking of these, and that which has produced the most salient features of the English system, is the growth of cabinet government . Intimately connected with this is the rise of the two great historical parties of English politics . The normal state of government in England is that the cabinet of the day shall represent that which is, for the time, the stronger of the two . Before the Revolution the king's ministers had begun to act as a united body; but even after the Revolution the union was still feeble and fluctuating, and,,each individual See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister was bound to the others only by the tie of common service to the king . Under the Hanoverian sovereigns the ministry became consolidated, the position of the cabinet became definite, and its dependence on parliament, and more particularly on the House of Commons, was established . Ministers were chosen exclusively from one house or the other, and they assumed complete responsibility for every act done in the name of the crown . The simplicity of English politics has divided parliament into the representatives of two parties, and the party in opposition has been steadied by the consciousness that it, too, has constitutional functions of high importance, because at any moment it may be called to provide a ministry . See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

Criticism is sobered by being made responsible . Along with this movement went the withdrawal of the personal See also:

• ACTION

action of the sovereign in politics . No king has attempted to See also:

• VETO (Lat. for " I forbid ")

veto a See also:

• BILL

bill since the Scottish See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

Militia Bill was vetoed by See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen See also:

• ANNE (1665-1714)
• ANNE (1693-1740)

Anne . No ministry has been dismissed by the sovereign since 1834 .

Whatever the power of the sovereign may be, it is unquestionably limited to his personal influence over his ministers . And it must be remembered that since the Reform Act of 1832 ministers have become, in practice, responsible ultimately, not to parliament, but to the House of Commons . Apart, therefore, from democratic changes due to a wider suffrage, we find that the House of Commons, as a body, gradually made itself the centre of the government . Since the area of the constitution has been enlarged, it may be doubted whether the orthodox descriptions of the government any longer apply . The earlier constitutional writers, such as See also:

• BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM (1723-1780)

Blackstone and J . L . See also:

• DELOLME, JEAN LOUIS (1740-1806)

Delolme, regard it as a wonderful See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound of the three standard forms,—monarchy, aristocracy and democracy . Each has its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, and each acts as a check upon the others . Hume, discussing the question " Whether the British government inclines more to absolute monarchy or to a republic," decides in favour of the former alternative . " The See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide has run long and with .some rapidity to the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of popular government, and is just beginning to turn toward monarchy." And he gives it as his own See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that absolute monarchy would be the easiest See also:

• DEATH

death, the true euthanasia of the British constitution . These views of the English government in the 18th century may be contrasted with See also:

• BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877)

Bagehot's See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the modern government as a working instrument' ' See Bagehot's English Constitution; or, for a more See also:

• RECENT

recent analysis, See also:

• SIDNEY
• SIDNEY (or SYDNEY), ALGERNON (1622-1683)
• SIDNEY, SIR HENRY (1529-1586)
• SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP (1554-1586)

Sidney Low's Governance of England . point of view, more near to the state system of the See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent of Europe than to that of the United Kingdom .

The people make a more complete surrender of power to the government (State or Federal) than is done in England . Cabinet Government.—The peculiar functions of the English cabinet are not easily matched in any foreign system . They are a See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery even to most educated Englishmen . The cabinet (q.v.) is much more than a body consisting of chiefs of departments . It is the inner council of the empire, the arbiter of national policy, foreign or domestic, the sovereign in See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission . The whole power of the House of Commons is concentrated in its hands . At the same time, it has no place whatever in the legal constitution . Its See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers and its constitution are not fixed even by any rule of practice . It keeps no See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of its proceedings . The relations of an individual minister to the cabinet, and of the cabinet to its head and creator, the premier, are things known only to the initiated . With the doubtful exception of France, no other system of government presents us with anything like its See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent . In the United States, as in the European monarchies, we have a council of ministers surrounding the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of the state .

Change of Power in the English System.—One of the most difficult problems of government is how to provide for the See also:

• DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68)

devolution of political power, and perhaps no other question is so generally and justly applied as the test of a working constitution . If the transmission See also:

• WORKS

works smoothly, the constitution, whatever may be its other defects, may at least be pronounced See also:

• STABLE

stable . It would be tedious to enumerate all the contrivances which this problem has suggested to political societies . Here, as usual, See also:

• ORIENTAL

oriental despotism stands at the bottom of the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale . When sovereign power is imputed to one family, and the law of succession fails to designate exclusively the individual entitled to succeed, assassination becomes almost a necessary measure of precaution . The See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince whom See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the