See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

GREEK See also:

• ART

ART  . It is proposed in the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article to give a brief See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• ART

art and of the principles embodied in that history . In any broad view of history, the products of the various arts practised by a See also:

• PEOPLE

people constitute an See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective and most important See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of the spirit of that people . But all nations have not excelled in the same way: some have found their best expression in See also:

• ARCHITECTURE (Lat. architectura, from the Gr. ap)(LTEKrwv, a master-builder)

architecture, some in See also:

• MUSIC

music, some in See also:

• POETRY

poetry . The Greeks most fully embodied their ideas in two ways, first in their splendid literature, both See also:

• PROSE

prose and See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, and secondly, in their plastic and pictorial art, in which See also:

• MATTER

matter they have remained to our days among the greatest instructors of mankind . The three arts of architecture, See also:

• SCULPTURE
• SCULPTURE (Lat. sculptura, from sculpere, to carve, cognate with Gr. yXb4ew)

sculpture and See also:

• PAINTING

painting were brought by them into a See also:

• FOCUS (Latin for " hearth " or " fireplace ")

focus; and by their aid they produced a visible splendour of public See also:

• LIFE

life such as has perhaps been nowhere else attained . The See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the remains of Greek See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization is so vast, and the learning with which these have been discussed is so ample, that it is hopeless to See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to give in a See also:

• WORK

work like the present any See also:

• COMPLETE

complete account of either . Rather we shall be frankly eclectic, choosing for See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration such results of Greek art as are most noteworthy and most characteristic . In some cases it will be possible to give a reference to a more detailed treatment of particular monuments in these volumes under the heading of the places to which they belong . Architectural detail is relegated to ARCHITECTURE and allied architectural articles . Coins (see See also:

• NUMISMATICS
• NUMISMATICS (Lat. numisma, nomisma, a coin; from the Greek, derived from voj4 u', to use according to law)

NUMISMATICS) and gems (see GEMS) are treated apart, as are vases (See also:

• CERAMICS, or KERAMICS (Gr. KEpapos, earthenware)

CERAMICS), and in the bibliography which closes this article an effort is made to See also:

• DIRECT

direct those who wish for further See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information in any particular See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of our subject . 1 .

The Rediscovery of Greek Art.—The visible See also:

• WORKS

works of Greek architect, sculptor and painter, accumulated in the cities of See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor until the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest . And in spite of the ravages of conquering Roman generals, and the more systematic despoilings of the emperors, we know that when See also:

• PAUSANIAS

Pausanias visited Greece, in the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of the Antonines, it was from See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast to coast a museum of works of art of all ages . But the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide soon turned . Works of originality were no longer produced, and a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of disasters gradually obliterated those of previous ages . In the course of the See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic and See also:

• SLAVONIC, OLD

Slavonic invasions from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, or in consequence of earthquakes, very frequent in Greece, the splendid cities and temples See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into ruins; and with the taking of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople by the See also:

• FRANKS
• FRANKS, SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897)

Franks in 1204 the last See also:

• GREAT

great collection of works of Greek sculpture disappeared . But while paintings-decayed, and works in See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal were melted down, many See also:

• MARBLE (from Lat. marmor, Gr. pApµapos, shining stone)

marble buildings and statues survived, at least in a mutilated See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition, while terra-See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta is almost See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof against decay . With the See also:

• RENAISSANCE, THE

Renaissance See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention was directed to the extant remains of Greek and Roman art; as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century collections of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient sculpture,coins and gems began to be formed in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy; and in the 16th the See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm spread to See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . The See also:

• EARL

earl of See also:

• ARUNDEL
• ARUNDEL, EARLDOM OF
• ARUNDEL, EARLS OF
• ARUNDEL, THOMAS (1353-1414)

Arundel, in the reign of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I., was the first Englishman to collect antiques from Italy and Asia Minor: his See also:

• MARBLES

marbles are now in the Ashmolean Museum at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford . Systematic travel in Greece for the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery of buildings and works of art was begun by See also:

• SPON, JACQUES (1647-1685)

Spon and Wheler (1675–1676); and the discovery of See also:

• POMPEII

Pompeii in 1748 opened a new See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter in the history of ancient art . • But though See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings delighted to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form galleries of ancient statues, 'and the great See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian artists of the Renaissance See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew from them See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration for their paintings and bronzes, the first really See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical appreciation of Greek art belongs to See also:

• WINCKELMANN, JOHANN JOACHIM (1717-.1768)

Winckelmann (Geschichte der Kunst See also:

• DES

des Altertums, 1764) . The monuments accessible to Winckelmann were but a very small proportion of those we now possess, and in fact mostly works of inferior merit: but he was the first to introduce the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical method into the treatment of ancient art, and to show how it embodied the ideas of the great peoples of the ancient See also:

• WORLD

world . He was succeeded by See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing, and the waves of thought and feeling set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion by these two affected the cultivated class in all nations, —they inspired in particular See also:

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe in Germany and See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• BYRON, GEORGE GORDON BYRON, 6TH BARON (1788-1824)
• BYRON, HENRY JAMES (1834-1884)
• BYRON, HON
• BYRON, JOHN BYRON

Byron in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England .

The second See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage in the recovery of Greek art begins with the permission accorded by the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte to Lord See also:

• ELGIN

Elgin in 1800 to re-move to England the sculptural decoration of the See also:

• PARTHENON (HapOevwv)

Parthenon and other buildings of See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens . These splendid works, after various vicissitudes, became the See also:

• PROPERTY

property of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English nation, and are now the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief treasures of the See also:

• BRITISH

British Museum . The sight of them was a See also:

• REVELATION, BOOK OF

revelation to critics and artists, accustomed only to the See also:

• BASE

base copies which fill the Italian galleries, and a new See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in the appreciation of Greek art began . English and See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German savants, among whom See also:

• COCKERELL, CHARLES ROBERT (1788-1863)

Cockerell and Stackelberg were conspicuous, recovered the glories of the temples of See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina and Bassae . See also:

• LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-186o)

Leake and See also:

• ROSS
• ROSS, ALEXANDER (1699-1784)
• ROSS, GEORGE WILLIAM (1841- )
• ROSS, JOHN, or KOOESKOOWE (179o-1866)
• ROSS, ROBERT (1766-1814)
• ROSS, SIR HEW DALRYMPLE (1779-1868)
• ROSS, SIR JAMES CLARK (1800-1862)
• ROSS, SIR JOHN (1777-1856)

Ross, and later See also:

• CURTIUS, ERNST (1814-1896)
• CURTIUS, MARCUS

Curtius, journeyed through the length and breadth of Greece, identifying ancient sites and studying the monuments which were above ground . Ross re-constructed the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple of See also:

• ATHENA (the Attic form of the Homeric Athene, also called Athenaia, Pallas Athene, Pallas)

Athena See also:

• NIKE

Nike on the See also:

• ACROPOLIS (Gr. aKpos, top, a6)Xts, city)

Acropolis of Athens from fragments rescued from a See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish See also:

• BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. bastire, to build)

bastion . Meantime more methodical exploration brought to See also:

• LIGHT

light the remains of remarkable civilizations in Asia, not only in the valley of the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates, but in See also:

• LYCIA

Lycia, whence See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

Fellows brought to See also:

• LONDON

London the remains of noteworthy tombs, among which the so-called See also:

• HARPY

Harpy See also:

• MONUMENT (Lat. monumentum or monumentum; from monere, to advise, bring to mind, remind; the German equivalent is Denkmal)

Monument and Nereid Monument take the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . Still more important were the accessions derived from the excavations of Sir Charles See also:

• NEWTON
• NEWTON, ALFRED (1829–1907)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807)
• NEWTON, JOHN (1823-1895)
• NEWTON, SIR CHARLES THOMAS (1816-1894)
• NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727)

Newton, who in the years 1852–1859 resided as See also:

• CONSUL
• CONSUL (in Gr. generally ihraros,ashortened form of errpavgybs 8hraeos, i.e. praetor maximus)

consul in Asia Minor, and explored the sites of the See also:

• MAUSOLEUM

mausoleum at See also:

• HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum)

Halicarnassus and the See also:

• SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. ecrin, Ital. scrigno)

shrine of See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter at See also:

• CNIDUS (mod. Tekir)

Cnidus . Pullan at See also:

• PRIENE (mod. Samsun kale)

Priene, and See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood at See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus also made fruitful excavations . The next landmark is set by the German excavations at See also:

• OLYMPIA

Olympia (1876 and See also:

• FOIL

foil.), which not only were conducted with a scientific completeness before unknown, and at great cost, but also established the principle that in future all the results of excavations in Greece must remain in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, the right of first publication only remaining with the explorers . The discovery of the See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes of See also:

• PRAXITELES

Praxiteles, almost the only certain See also:

• ORIGINAL

original of a great Greek sculptor which we possess, has furnished a new and invaluable fulcrum for the study of ancient art . In emulation of the achievements of the Germans at Olympia, the Greek archaeological society methodically excavated the Athenian acropolis, and were rewarded by finding numerous statues and fragments of pediments belonging to the age of See also:

• PEISISTRATUS, (605?–527 B.c.)

Peisistratus, an age when the promise of art was in full bud .

More recently See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French explorers have made a very thorough examination of the site of See also:

• DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian inscriptions BeA4oi, on coins Aa)tg5oi)

Delphi, and have succeeded in recovering almost complete two small treasuries, those of the people of Athens and of Cnidus or Siphnos, the latter of 6th-century Ionian work, and adorned with extremely important sculpture . No other site of the same importance as Athens, Olympia and Delphi remains for excavation in Greece proper . But in all parts of the country, at See also:

• TEGEA

Tegea, See also:

• CORINTH
• CORINTH, ISTHMUS OF

Corinth, See also:

• SPARTA (Gr. Eirapril or AaKe5atycav)

Sparta and on a number of other ancient sites, striking and important monuments have come to light . And at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time monuments already known in Italy and See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily, such as the temples of See also:

• PAESTUM (Gr.Iloveu3wvia; mod. Pesto)

Paestum, See also:

• SELINUS (EeXsvoiis)

Selinus and See also:

• AGRIGENTUM (Gr. 'Arcpayas, mod. Girgenti (q.v.))

Agrigentum have been re-examined with See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller knowledge and better See also:

• SYSTEM

system . Only Asia Minor, under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Turkish See also:

• RULE

rule, has remained a country where systematic exploration is difficult . Something, however, has been accomplished atEphesus, Priene, Assos and See also:

• MILETUS (mod. Palatia)

Miletus, and great works of sculpture such as the reliefs of the great See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar at See also:

• PERGAMUM, or PERGAMTS (mod. Bergama)

Pergamum, now at See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, and the splendid sarcophagi from See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, now at Constantinople, show what might be expected from methodic investigation of the wealthy Greek cities of Asia . From further excavations at See also:

• HERCULANEUM

Herculaneum we may expect a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest of works of art of the highest class, such as have already been found in the excavations on that site in the past; and the See also:

• BUILDING

building operations at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome are constantly bringing to light See also:

• FINE

fine statues brought from Greece in the time of the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, which are now placed in the collections of the Capitol and the See also:

• BATHS

Baths of See also:

• DIOCLETIAN (GAIUs AURELIUS VALERIUS DIOCLETIANUS) (A.D. 245–313)
• DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (De Pretiis rerum venalium)

Diocletian . The work of explorers on Greek sites requires as its See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement and corrective much labour in the great museums of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe . As museum work apart from exploration tends to dilettantism and pedantry, so exploration by itself does not produce reasoned knowledge . When a new building, a great original statue, a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of vases is discovered, these have to be fitted in to the existing See also:

• FRAME

frame of our knowledge; and it is by such fitting in that the edifice of knowledge is enlarged . In all the museums and See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities of Europe the fresh examination of new monuments, the study of See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style and subject, and attempts to work out points in the history of ancient art, are incessantly going on . Such archaeological work is an important See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual See also:

• EDUCATION

education of the world, and is fruitful, quite apart from the particular results attained, because it encourages a method of thought .

See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology, dealing with things which can be seen and handled, yet being a See also:

• SPECIES

species of historic study, lies on the borderland between the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of natural See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science and that of historic science, and furnishes a See also:

• BRIDGE

bridge whereby the methods of investigation proper to See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical and biological study may pass into the human See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . These investigations and studies are recorded, partly in books, but more particularly in papers in learned See also:

• JOURNALS

journals (see bibliography), such as the Mitteilungen of the German See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

Institute, and the English See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Hellenic Studies . An example or two may serve to give the reader a clearer notion of the See also:

• RECENT

recent progress in the knowledge of Greek art . To begin with architecture . Each of the palmary sites of which we have spoken has rendered up examples of early Greek temples . At Olympia there is the Heraeum, earliest of known temples of Greece proper, which clearly shows the See also:

• PROCESS

process whereby See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone gradually superseded wood as a constructive material . At Delphi the explorers have been so fortunate as to be able to put together the treasuries of the Cnidians (or Siphnians) and of the Athenians . The former (see fig . 17) is a See also:

• GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud,—from the root gen, meaning " to produce,"—or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek term is > d>os)
• GEM, ARTIFICIAL

gem of early Ionic art, with two Caryatid figures in front in the place of columns, and adorned with the most delicate See also:

• TRACERY

tracery and fine reliefs . On the Athenian acropolis very considerable remains have been found of temples which were destroyed by the Persians when they temporarily occupied the site in 480 B.C . And recently the ever-renewed study of the See also:

• ERECHTHEUM

Erechtheum has resulted in a restoration of its original form more valuable and trustworthy than any previously made . In the field of sculpture recent discoveries have been too many and too important to be mentioned at any length .

One instance may serve to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the rapidity of our advance . When the remains of the Mausoleum were brought to London from the excavations begun by Sir Charles Newton in 1856 we knew from See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny that four great sculptors, See also:

• SCOPAS

Scopas, See also:

• BRYAXIS

Bryaxis, Leochares and See also:

• TIMOTHEUS

Timotheus, had worked on the sculpture; but we knew of these artists little more than the names . At present we possess many fragments of two pediments at Tegea executed under the direction of Scopas, we have a basis with reliefs signed by Bryaxis, we have identified a See also:

• GROUP

group in the Vatican museum as a copy of the See also:

• GANYMEDE

Ganymede of Leochares, and we have pedimental remains from See also:

• EPIDAURUS

Epidaurus which we know from inscriptional See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence to be either the works of Timotheus or made from his See also:

• MODELS

models . Any one can See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge how enormously our See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of criticizing the Mausoleum sculptures, and of comparing them with contemporary monuments, has increased . In regard to ancient painting we can of course expect no such fresh See also:

• ILLUMINATION

illumination . Many important See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall-paintings of the Roman age have been found at Rome and Pompeii: but we have no certain or even probable work of any great Greek painter . We 'have to content ourselves with studying the colouring of reliefs, such as those' of the sarcophagi at Constantinople, and the drawings on vases, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to get some notion of the See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition and See also:

• DRAWING

drawing of painted scenes in the great age of Greece . As to the portraits of the Roman age painted on wood which have come in considerable quantities from See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, they stand at a farlower level than even the paintings of Pompeii . The number of our See also:

• VASE
• VASE (through Fr. from Lat. vas, a vessel, pl. vasa, of which the singular vasum is rarely found; the ultimate root is probably was-, to cover, seen in Lat: vestis, clothing, Eng. " vest," Gr. to-th c, and also in " wear," of garments)

vase-paintings, however, increases steadily, and whole classes, such as the early vases of See also:

• IONIA

Ionia, are being marked off from the See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd, and so becoming available for use in illustrating the history of Hellenic civilization . The study of Greek art is thus one which is eminently progressive . It has over the study of Greek literature the immense See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage that its materials increase far more rapidly . And it is becoming more and more evident that a See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound and methodic study of Greek art is quite as indispensable as a See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for an See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic and archaeological education as the study of Greek poets and orators is as a. basis of See also:

• LITERARY

literary education .

The extreme simplicity and thorough rationality of Greek art make it an unrivalled field for the training and exercise of the faculties which go to the making of the art-critic and art historian . 2 . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General Principles of Greek Art.—Before proceeding to See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch the history of the rise and decline of Greek art, it is desirable briefly to set forth the principles which underlie it (see also P . See also:

• GARDNER
• GARDNER, PERCY (1846– )

Gardner's See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

Grammar of Greek Art) . As the literature of Greece is composed in a particular See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, the grammar and the syntax of which have to be studied before the works in poetry and prose can be read, so Greek works of art are composed in what may be called an artistic language . To the See also:

• ACCIDENCE (a mis-spelling of " accidents," from the Latin neuter plural accidentia, casual events)

accidence of a grammar may be compared the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere technique of sculpture and painting: to the syntax of a grammar correspond the principles of composition and grouping of individual figures into a See also:

• RELIEF

relief or picture . By means of the rules of this grammar the Greek artist threw into form the ideas which belonged to him as a See also:

• PERSONAL

personal or a racial See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession . We may mention first some of the more See also:

• EXTERNAL

external conditions of Greek art; next, some of those which the Greek spirit posited for itself . No nation is in its works wholly See also:

• FREE

free from the domination of See also:

• CLIMATE

climate and See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position; least of all a people so keenly alive to the influence of the See also:

• OUTER

outer world as the Greeks . They lived in a See also:

• LAND

land where the See also:

• SOIL

soil was dry and rocky, far less hospitable to vegetation than that of western Europe, while on all sides the See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon of the land was bounded by hard and jagged lines of See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain . The See also:

• SKY (M. Eng. skie, cloud; O. Eng. skua, shade; connected with an Indo-European root sku, cover, whence " scum," Lat. obscurus, dark, &c.)

sky was extremely clear and See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright, See also:

• SUNSHINE

sunshine for a great See also:

• PART

part of the See also:

• YEAR

year almost perpetual, and storms, which are more than passing See also:

• GALES (mod. Calvi)

gales, rare . It was in accordance with these natural features that temples and other buildings should be See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in form and bounded by clear lines .

Such forms as the See also:

• CUBE (Gr. K46os, a cube)

cube, the oblong, the See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder, the triangle, the See also:

• PYRAMID

pyramid abound in their constructions . Just as in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland the gables of the chalets match the See also:

• PINE (Lat. Pinus, Gr. srlrur)

pine-clad slopes and lofty summits of the mountains, so in Greece, amid barer hills of less See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation, the Greek temple looks thoroughly in place . But its construction is related not only to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the land, but also to the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• RACE

race . M . Emile Boutmy, in his interesting Philosophie de l'architecture en Grece, has shown how the temple is a See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph of the senses and the See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect, not primarily emotional, but showing in every part definite purpose and See also:

• DESIGN (Fr. desiin, drawing; Lat. designare, to mark out)

design . It also exhibits in a remarkable degree the love of See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance, of symmetry, of a mathematical proportion of parts and correctness of curvature which belong to the Greek artist . The purposes of a Greek temple may be readily judged from its See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan: Primarily it was the See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode of the deity, whose statue dwelt in it as men dwell in their own houses . Hence the See also:

• CELLA

cella or naos is the central feature of the building . Here was placed the See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image to which See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship was brought, while the treasures belonging to the See also:

• GOD

god were disposed partly in the cella itself, partly in a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• TREASURY

treasury which often existed, as in the Parthenon, behind the cella . There was in large temples a See also:

• PORCH (through the Fr. porehe, from Lat. porticus; the Ital. equivalent is portico, corresponding to the Gr. vapOi ; Ger. Vorhalle)

porch of approach, the promos, and another behind, the opisthodomos . Temples were not meant for, nor accommodated to, See also:

• REGULAR

regular services or a throng of worshippers . Processions and festivals took place in the open See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air, in the streets and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, and men entered the abodes of the gods at most in See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups and families, commonly alone .

Thus when a place had been found for the statue, which stood for the presence of the god, for the small altar of See also:

• INCENSE

incense, for the implements of cult and the gifts of votaries, little space remained free, and great spaces or subsidiary chapels such as are usual in See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian cathedrals did not exist (see TEMPLE) . Here our concern is not with the purposes or arrangements of a temple, but with its See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance and construction, regarded as a work of art, and as an embodiment of Greek ideas . A few simple and striking principles may be formulated, which are characteristic of all Greek buildings: (i.) Each member of the building has one See also:

• FUNCTION

function, and only one, and this function controls even the decoration of that member . The See also:

• PILLAR (0. Fr. piler, Mod. pilier, Late Lat. pilare, from pila, column)

pillar of a temple is made to support the See also:

• ARCHITRAVE (from Lat. arcus, an arch, and trabs, trabem, a beam)

architrave and is for that purpose only . The flutings of the pillar, being perpendicular, emphasize this fact . The See also:

• LINE

line of support which runs up through the pillar is continued in the See also:

• TRIGLYPH (Gr. rpelis, three, and yXv4 , an incision or carving)

triglyph, which also shows perpendicular grooves . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, the wall of a temple is primarily meant to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide or space off; thus it may well at the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top be decorated by a See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal See also:

• BAND

band of relief, which belongs to it as a border belongs to a See also:

• CURTAIN

curtain . The base of a See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column, if moulded, is moulded in such a way as to suggest support of a great See also:

• WEIGHT

weight; the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of a column is so carved as to form a transition between the column and the See also:

• CORNICE (Fr. corniche, Ital. cornice)

cornice which it supports . (ii.) Greek architects took the utmost pains with the proportions, the symmetry as they called it, of the parts of their buildings . This was a thing in which the keen and methodical eyes of the Greeks delighted, to a degree which a See also:

• MODERN

modern finds it hard to understand . Simple and natural relations, z 2, I :3, 2 :3 and the like, prevailed between various members of a construction . All curves were planned with great care, to please the See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye with their flow; and the alternations and correspondences of features is visible at a glance .

For example, the temple must have two pediments and two porches, and on its sides and fronts triglyph and See also:

• METOPE (Gr. ierbml, a middle space)

metope must alternate with unvarying regularity . (iii.) Rigidity in the simple lines of a temple is avoided by the See also:

• DEVICE

device that scarcely any outline is actually straight . All are carefully planned and adapted to the eye of the spectator . In the Parthenon the line of the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor is curved, the profiles of the columns are curved, the corner columns slope inward from their bases, the columns are not even equidistant . This elaborate See also:

• ADAPTATION (from Lat. adaptare. to fit to)

adaptation, called See also:

• ENTASIS (from Gr. vTelvety, to stretch a line or bend a bow)

entasis, was expounded by F . C . Penrose in his work on Athenian architecture, and has since been observed in several of the great temples of Greece . (iv.) Elaborate decoration is reserved for those parts of the temple which have, or at least appear to have, no See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain laid upon them . It is true that in the archaic age experiments were made in See also:

• CARVING

carving reliefs on the See also:

• LOWER

lower drums of columns (as at Ephesus) and on the line of the architrave (as at See also:

• ASSUS [mod. Behram]

Assus) . But such examples were not followed . Nearly always the spaces reserved for mythological reliefs or groups are the tops of walls, the spaces between the triglyphs, and particularly the pediments surmounting the two fronts, which might be .eft hollow without danger to the stability of the edifice . Detached figures in the See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round are in fact found only in the pediments, or See also:

• STANDING

standing upon the tops of the pediments .

And metopes are sculptured in higher relief than friezes . " When we examine in detail even the simplest architectural decoration, we discover a See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of care, sense of proportion, and See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The flutings of an Ionic column are not in See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section mere arcs of a circle, but made up of a combination of curveswhich produce a beautiful See also:

• OPTICAL

optical effect; the lines of decoration, as may he best seen in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of the Erechtheum, are cut with a marvellous delicacy . Instead of trying to invent . new schemes, the See also:

• MASON, FRANCIS (1799—1874)
• MASON, GEORGE (1725—1792)
• MASON, GEORGE HEMMING (1818–1872)
• MASON, JAMES MURRAY (1798-1871)
• MASON, JOHN (1586-1635)
• MASON, JOHN YOUNG (1799-1859)
• MASON, LOWELL (1792—1872)
• MASON, SIR JOHN (1503–1566)
• MASON, SIR JOSIAH (1795-1881)
• MASON, WILLIAM (1725—1797)

mason contents himself with improving the regular patterns until they approach perfection, and he takes everything into consideration . See also:

• MOULDINGS

Mouldings on the outside of a temple, in the full light of the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun, are differently planned from those in the diffused light of the interior . Mouldings executed in soft stone are less fine than those in marble . The mason thinks before he works, and while he works, and thinks in entire See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with his surroundings." 1 Greek architecture, however, is treated elsewhere (see ARCHITECTURE); we will therefore proceed to speak briefly of the principles exemplified in sculpture . Existing works of Greek Grammar of Greek Art.sculpture fall easily into two classes . The first class comprises what may be called works of substantive art, statues or groups made for their own See also:

• SAKE

sake and to be judged by themselves . Such are cult-statues of gods and goddesses from temple and shrine, honorary portraits of rulers or of athletes, dedicated groups and the like . The second class comprises decorative sculptures, such as were made, usually in relief, for the decoration of temples and tombs and other buildings, and were intended to be sub-See also:

• ORDINATE

ordinate to architectural effect . Speaking broadly, it may be said that the works of substantive sculpture in our museums are in the great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of cases copies of doubtful exactness and very various merit .

The Hermes of Praxiteles is almost the only marble statue which can be assigned positively to one of the great sculptors; we have to work back towards the productions of the peers of Praxiteles through works of poor See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, often so much restored in modern times as to be scarcely recognizable . Decorative works, on the other hand, are very commonly originals, and their date can often be accurately fixed, as they belong to known buildings . They are thus infinitely more trustworthy and more easy to See also:

• DEAL

deal with than the copies of statues of which the museums of Europe, and more especially those of Italy, are full . They are also more commonly unrestored . But yet there are certain disadvantages attaching to them . Decorative works, even when carried out under the supervision of a great sculptor, were but seldom executed by him . Usually they were the productions of his pupils or masons . Thus they are not on the same level of art as substantive sculpture . And they vary in merit to an extraordinary extent, according to the capacity of the. See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man who happened to have them in hand, and who was probably but little. controlled . Every one knows how See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble are the pedimental sculptures of the Parthenon . But we know no reason why they should be so vastly See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the See also:

• FRIEZE

frieze from See also:

• PHIGALIA, or PHIGALEIA ( tykXca or f'tyaXeia; mod. Pavlitsa)

Phigalia; nor why the heads from the temple at Tegea should be so fine, while those from the contemporary temple at Epidaurus should be comparatively insignificant . From the records of payments made to the sculptors who worked on the Erechtheum at Athens it appears that they were.See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary masons, some of them not even citizens, and paid at the See also:

• RATE

rate of 6o drachms (about 6o francs) for each figure, whether of man or See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse, which they produced .

Such piece-work would not, in our days, produce a very satisfactory result . Works of substantive sculpture may be divided into two classes, the statues of human beings and those of the gods . The line between the two is not, however, very easy to draw, or very definite . For in representing men the Greek sculptor had an irresistible inclination to idealize, to represent what was generic and typical rather than what ' was individual, and the essential rather than the accidental . And in representing deities he so fully anthropomorphized them that they became men and See also:

• WOMEN

women, only raised above the level of everyday life and endowed with a superhuman stateliness . Moreover, there was a class of heroes represented largely in art who covered the transition from men to gods . For example, if one regards Heracles as a deity and See also:

• ACHILLES
• ACHILLES (Gr. 'AxtXXeus)

Achilles as a man of the heroic age and of heroic See also:

• MOULD

mould, the line between the two will be found to be very narrow . Nevertheless one may for convenience speak first of human and afterwards of divine figures . It was the See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom from the 6th century onwards to See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour those who had done any great achievement by setting up their statues in conspicuous positions . One of the earliest examples is that of the tyrannicides, See also:

• HARMODIUS

Harmodius and Aristogiton, a group, a copy of which has come down to us (See also:

• PLATE