See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

GREEK LITERATURE  .—The literature of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language is broadly divisible into three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main sections: (I) See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

Ancient, (2) See also:

• BYZANTINE

Byzantine, (3) See also:

• MODERN

Modern . These are dealt with below in that See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . I . THE ANCIENT GREEK- LITERATURE The ancient literature falls into three periods: (A) The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Literature, to about 475 B.C.; epic, elegiac, See also:

• IAMBIC

iambic and lyric See also:

• POETRY

poetry; the beginnings of See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• PROSE

prose . (B) The See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic Literature 475–300 B.C.; tragic and comic See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama; See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical, oratorical and philosophical prose . (C) The Literature of the Decadence, 30o B.C. to A.D . 529; which may again be divided into the Alexandrian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, 300–146 B.C., and the Graeco-See also:

• ROMAN

Roman period, 146 B.C. to A.D . 529 . For details regarding particular See also:

• WORKS

works or the lives of their authors reference should be made to the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate articles devoted to the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal Greek writers . The See also:

• OBJECT

object of the following pages is to See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch the literary development as a whole, to show how its successive periods were related to each other, and to See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark the dominant characteristics of each . (A) The Early Literature.—A See also:

• PROCESS

process of natural growth may be traced through all the best See also:

• WORK

work of the Greek See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius . The Greeks were not literary imitators of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• MODELS

models; the forms of poetry and prose in which they attained to such unequalled excellence were first See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed by themselves .

Their literature had its roots in their See also:

• POLITICAL

political and social See also:

• LIFE

life; it is the spontaneous expression of that life in youth, maturity and decay; and the order in which its several fruits are produced is not the result of See also:

• ACCIDENT
• ACCIDENT (from Lat. accidere, to happen)

accident or caprice . Further, the old Greek literature has a striking completeness, due to the fact that each See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Hellenic See also:

• RACE

race See also:

• BORE

bore a characteristic See also:

• PART

part in its development . See also:

• IONIANS

Ionians, Aeolians, See also:

• DORIANS

Dorians, in turn contributed their See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share . Each See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect corresponded to a certain aspect of Hellenic life and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . Each found its appropriate work . The Ionians on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor—a lively and genial See also:

• PEOPLE

people, delighting in See also:

• ADVENTURE (from Lat. res adventura, a thing about to happen)

adventure, and keenly sensitive to every- thing *See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright and joyous—created See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic epic poetry The d/ateets. out of the See also:

• LAYS

lays in which Aeolic minstrels sang of the old Achaean See also:

• WARS

wars . And among the Ionians arose elegiac poetry, the first variation on the epic type . These found a fitting See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument in the harmonious Ionic dialect, the flexible utterance of a See also:

• QUICK

quick and versatile intelligence . The Aeolians of See also:

• LESBOS (Mytilene, Turk. Midullu)

Lesbos next created the lyric of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion, in which the traits of their race—its chivalrous See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride, its bold but sensuous See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy—found a fitting See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice in the fiery strength and tenderness of Aeolic speech . The See also:

• DORIA, ANDREA (1466-156o)

Doria.ns of the See also:

• PELOPONNESUS (" Island of Pelops ")

Peloponnesus, See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and Magna Graecia then perfected the choral lyric for festivals and religious See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship; and here again an See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest faith, a strong pride in Dorian usage and renown had an See also:

• APT

apt- interpreter in the massive and sonorous Doric . Finally, the Attic branch of the Ionian stock produced the drama, blending elements of all the other kinds, and developed an artistic literary prose in See also:

• HISTORY

history, See also:

• ORATORY (Lat. oratorio, sc. ors; from orare, to speak or pray)

oratory and See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy . It is in the Attic literature that the Greek mind receives its most See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation .

A natural See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity was See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt to exist between each dialect and that See also:

• SPECIES

species of See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition for which it had been specially used . Hence the dialect of the Ionian epic poets would be adopted with more or less thoroughness even by epic or elegiac poets who were not Ionians . Thus the Aeolian See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod uses it in epos, the Dorian Theognis in See also:

• ELEGY

elegy, though not without alloy . Similarly, the Dorian See also:

• THEOCRITUS

Theocritus wrote love-songs in Aeolic . All the faculties and tones of the language were thus gradually brought out by the co-operation of the dialects . Old Greek literature has an essential unity—the unity of a living organism; and this unity comprehends a number of distinct types, each of which is complete in its own See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . Extant Greek literature begins with the Homeric poems . These are works of See also:

• ART

art which imply a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long period of antecedent poetical cultivation . Of the pre-Homeric poetry we have no remains, and very little knowledge . Such Pre-glimpses as we get of it connect it with two different Hoinerk poetry . tr y. e stages in the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of the prehistoric Hellenes . The first of these stages is that in which the agencies or forms of See also:

• EXTERNAL

external nature were personified indeed, yet with the consciousness that the personal names were only symbols .

Some very ancient Greek songs of which mention is made may have belonged to this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage—as the songs of See also:

• LINUS

Linus, rare Ialemus and See also:

• HYLAS

Hylas . Linus, the See also:

• FAIR

fair youth killed by the Y seasons . See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, seems to be the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring passing away before Sirius . Such songs have been aptly called " songs of the seasons." The second stage is that in which the Hellenes have now definitively personified the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which they worship . See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo, See also:

• DEMETER

Demeter, See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus, See also:

• CYBELE, or CYBEBE (Gr. Ku/3X, Ku,(3i7sn)

Cybele, have now become to them beings with clearly conceived attributes . To this second stage belong the See also:

• HYMNS

hymns connected with the names of the legendary Kymns, bards, such as See also:

• ORPHEUS

Orpheus, See also:

• MUSAEUS

Musaeus, See also:

• EUMOLPUS (" sweet singer ")

Eumolpus, who are themselves associated with the worship of the Pierian See also:

• MUSES, THE (Gr. Mo6o-at, the thinkers)

Muses and the Attic See also:

• RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom)

ritual of Demeter . The seats of this early sacred poetry are not only "Thracian "—i.e. on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• GREECE

Greece—but also " Phrygian " and " Cretan." It belongs, that is, presumably to an See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age when the ancestors of the Hellenes had See also:

• LEFT

left the Indo-See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in central Asia, but had not yet taken full See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the lands which were afterwards Hellenic . Some of their tribes were still in Asia; others were settling in the islands of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean; others were passing through the lands on its northern seaboard . If there was a period when the Greeks possessed no poetry but hymns forming part of a religious ritual, it may be conjectured that it was not of long duration . Already in the Iliad a See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular character belongs to the See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage hymn and to the See also:

• DIRGE

dirge for the dead, which in ancient See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India were chanted by the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest . The See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent of the Greeks was to claim poetry and See also:

• MUSIC

music as public joys; they would not long have suffered them to remain sacerdotal mysteries . And among the earliest themes on which the See also:

• LAY

lay artist in poetry was employed were probably See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war-See also:

• BALLADS

ballads, sung by minstrels in the houses of the chiefs whose ancestors they celebrated .

Such war-ballads were the materials from which the earliest epic poetry of Greece was constructed . By an " epic " poem the Greeks meant a narrative of heroic See also:

• ACTION

action in epos See also:

• HEXAMETER

hexameter See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse . The See also:

• TERM

term Emi meant at first simply " verses "; it acquired its See also:

• SPECIAL

special meaning only when tAXri, lyric songs set to music, came to be distinguished from C7r?j, verses not set to music, but merely recited . Epic poetry is the only kind of extant Greek poetry which is older than about 700 B.C . The early epos of Greece is represented by the Iliad and the Odyssey, Hesiod and the Homeric hymns; also by some fragments of the " Cyclic " poets . After the Dorian See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of the Peloponnesus, the Aeolian emigrants who settled in the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of Asia Minor brought with them the warlike legends of their chiefs, the Achaean princes of old . These legends lived in the The h'Ienad" ballads of the Aeolic minstrels, and from them passed Odyssey." southward into See also:

• IONIA

Ionia, where the Ionian poets gradually shaped them into higher artistic forms . Among the seven places which claimed to be the birthplace of See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer, that which has the best See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title is See also:

• SMYRNA (Ismir)

Smyrna . Homer himself is called " son of Meles "—the stream which flowed through old Smyrna, on the border between Aeolia and Ionia . The tradition is significant in regard to the origin and character of the Iliad, for in the Iliad we have Achaean ballads worked up by Ionian art . A preponderance of See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence is in favour of the view that the Odyssey also, at least in its earliest See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, was composed on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor . According to the Spartan See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account, See also:

• LYCURGUS
• LYCURGUS (c. 396–325 B.C.)
• LYCURGUS (Gr. AvKofpyor)

Lycurgus was the first to bring to Greece a complete copy of the Homeric poems, which he had obtained from the Creophylidae, a See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan or gild of poets in See also:

• SAMOS

Samos .

A better authenticated tradition connects See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens with early attempts to preserve the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief poetical treasure of the nation . See also:

• PEISISTRATUS, (605?–527 B.c.)

Peisistratus is said to have charged some learned men with the task of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting all " the poems of Homer "; but it is difficult to decide how much was comprehended under this last phrase, or whether the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of the See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission went beyond the See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere task of collecting . Nor can it be deter-See also:

• MINED

mined what exactly it was that See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon and See also:

• HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.c.)

Hipparchus respectively did for the Homeric poems . Solon, it has been thought, enacted that the poems should be recited from an authorized See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text (E>; ioroi3oXrls); Hipparchus, that they should be recited in a See also:

• REGULAR

regular order (EE vtroXit ' ws) . At any See also:

• RATE

rate, we know that in the 6th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C. a recitation of the poems of Homer was one of the established competitions at the See also:

• PANATHENAEA

Panathenaea, held once in four years . The reciter was called a See also:

• RHAPSODIST (Gk. Rhapsodos)

rhapsodist—properly one who weaves a long, smoothly-flowing See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

chant, then an epic poet who chants his own or another's poem . The rhapsodist did not, like the early See also:

• MINSTREL

minstrel, use the See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment of the See also:

• HARP (Fr. harpe; Ger. Harfe; Ital. arpa)

harp; he gave the verses in a flowing recitative, bearing in his See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand a branch of See also:

• LAUREL

laurel, the See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of Apollo's See also:

• INSPIRATION (Lat. inspirare, breathe upon or into)

inspiration . In the 5th century B.C. we find that various Greek cities had their own See also:

• EDITIONS

editions (al aoXtrtKal, Kara 7roXets or EK iroXewv E KSSaeL1) of the poems, for recitation at their festivals . Among these were the editions of Massilia, of See also:

• CHIOS

Chios and of Argolis . There were also editions bearing the name of the individual editor (al Kar' avSpa)—the best known being that which See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle prepared for See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander . The recension of the poems by See also:

• ARISTARCHUS

Aristarchus (156 B.C.) became the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard one, and is probably that on which the existing text is based . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest Homeric MS. extant, Venetus A of the Iliad, is of the loth century; the first printed edition of Homer was that edited by the Byzantine See also:

• DEMETRIUS

Demetrius Chalcondyles (See also:

• FLORENCE
• FLORENCE (Ital. Firenze, Lat. Florentia)

Florence, 1488) .

The ancient Greeks were almost unanimous in believing the Iliad and the Odyssey to be the work of one See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, Homer, to whom they also ascribed some extant hymns, and probably much more besides . Aristotle and Aristarchus seem to have put Homer's date about 1044 B.C., See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus about 85o a.c . It is not till about 170 B.C. that the grammarians See also:

• HELLANICUS

Hellanicus and Xenon put forward the view that Homer was the author of the Iliad, but not of the Odyssey . Those who followed them in assigning different authors to the two poems were called the Separators (See also:

• CHORIZONTES (" separators ")

Chorizontes) . Aristarchus combated " the See also:

• PARADOX (Gr. treat, beyond, contrary to, Sofia, opinion)

paradox of Xenon," and it does not seem to have had much See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance in antiquity . Giovanni Battista See also:

• VICO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1668-1744)

Vico, a Neapolitan (1668–1744), seems to have been the first modern to suggest the composite authorship and oral tradition of the Homeric poems; but this was a pure conjecture in support of his theory that the names of ancient lawgivers and poets are often mere symbols . F . A . See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

Wolf, in the Prolegomena to his edition (1795), was the founder of a scientific See also:

• SCEPTICISM (o-Kesrroµai, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt)

scepticism . The Iliad, he said (for he recognized the 'See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative unity and consistency of the Odyssey), was pieced together from many small unwritten poems by various hands, and was first committed to See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of Peisistratus . This view was in See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism at the time; it was welcomed as a new testimony to the superiority of popular poetry, springing from fresh natural See also:

• SOURCES

sources, to elaborate works of art; and it at once found enthusiastic adherents . For the course of Homeric controversy since Wolf the reader is referred to the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article HOMER .

The Ionian school of epos produced a number of poems founded on the legends of the Trojan war, and intended as introductions or continuations to the Iliad and the ten years between the Iliad and the Odyssey; the Lay of Telegonus, by Eugammon of See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

Cyrene, continued the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the Odyssey to the See also:

• DEATH

death of See also:

• ODYSSEUS (in Latin Ulixes, incorrectly written Ulysses)

Odysseus by the hand of Telegonus, the son .whom See also:

• CIRCE (Gr. Kiprcrl)

Circe bore to him . Similarly the See also:

• CYPRIAN, SAINT [Caecilius Cyprianus, called THASCIUS] (c. 200–258)

Cyprian Lays by See also:

• STASINUS

Stasinus of See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, ascribed by others to Hegesias (or Hegesinus) of See also:

• SALAMIS

Salamis or See also:

• HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum)

Halicarnassus, was See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory to the Iliad; the Aethiopis and the See also:

• SACK

Sack of See also:

• TROY
• TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679–1752)

Troy, by See also:

• ARCTINUS

Arctinus of See also:

• MILETUS (mod. Palatia)

Miletus, and the Little Iliad, by See also:

• LESCHES (Lescheos in Pausanias x. 25. 5)

Lesches of Mytilene, were supplementary to it . These and many other names of lost epics—some taken also from the Theban myths (Thebais, See also:

• EPIGONI (" descendants ")

Epigoni, Oedipodea)—serve to show how prolific was that epic school of which only two great examples remain . The name of epic See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle was properly applied to a prose compilation of abstracts from these epics, pieced together in the order of the events . The compilers were called " cyclic " writers; and the term has now been transferred to the epic poets whom they used.' The epic poetry of Ionia celebrated the great deeds of heroes in the old wars . But in Greece proper there arose another school of epos, which busied itself with religious See also:

• LORE
• LORE, AMBROISE DE (1396-1446)

lore Hesiodk and ethical precepts, especially in relation to the rural epos, life of See also:

• BOEOTIA

Boeotia . This school is represented by the name of Hesiod . The See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend spoke of him as vanquishing Homer in a poetical contest of See also:

• CHALCIS

Chalcis in See also:

• EUBOEA (pronounced Evvia in the modern language)

Euboea; and it expresses the fact that, to the old Greek mind, these two names stood for two contrasted epic types . Nothing is certainly known of his date, except that it must have been subsequent to the maturity of Ionian epos . He is conjecturally placed about 850–80o B.C.; but some would refer him to the early part of the 7th century B.C . His home was at Ascra, a See also:

• VILLAGE

village in a valley under See also:

• HELICON
• HELICON (Fr. helicon, bombardon circulaire; Ger. Helikon)

Helicon, whither his See also:

• FATHER

father had migrated from Cyme in See also:

• AEOLIS (AEOLIA)

Aeolis on the coast of Asia Minor . In Hesiod's Works and Days we have the earliest example of a didactic poem .

The seasons and the labours of the Boeotian See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer's See also:

• YEAR

year are followed by a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of the days which are lucky or unlucky for work . The Theogony, or " Origin of the Gods," describes first how the visible order of nature arose out of See also:

• CHAOS

chaos; next, how the gods were See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born . Though it never possessed the character of a sacred See also:

• BOOK

book, it remained a standard authority on the genealogies of the gods . So far as a corrupt and confused text warrants a See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, the poet was piecing together—not always intelligently—the fragments of a very old cosmogonic See also:

• SYSTEM

system, using for this purpose both the hymns preserved in the temples and the myths which lived in See also:

• FOLKLORE

folklore . The epic lay in 48o lines called the See also:

• SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold; the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in " shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel. skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger
• SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748—1829)

Shield of Heracles—partly imitated from the 18th book of the Iliad—is the work of an author or authors later than Hesiod . In the Hesiodic poetry, as represented by the Works and Days and the Theogony, we see the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple at See also:

• DELPHI (the Pytho of Homer and Herodotus; in Boeotian inscriptions BeA4oi, on coins Aa)tg5oi)

Delphi . Hesiod recognizes the existence of Saiµoves—See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits of the departed who haunt the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth as the invisible guardians of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice; and he connects the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of the poet with that of the See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

prophet . The poet is one whom the gods have authorized to impress See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine and See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical duties on men . A religious purpose was essentially characteristic of the Hesiodic school . Its poets treated the old legends as See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of a sacred history, and not merely, in the Ionian manner, as subjects of idealizing art . Such titles as the See also:

• MAXIMS, LEGAL

Maxims of Cheiron and the Lay of See also:

• MELAMPUS

Melampus, the seer—lost poems of the Hesiodic school—illustrate its ethical and its mystic tendencies . The Homeric Hymns are a collection of pieces, some of them very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, in hexameter verse .

Their traditional title is—Hymns or Preludes of Homer and tEie Homeridae . The second of the alternative designations is the true one . The HomeNc The pieces are not " hymns " used in formal worship, hymns. but " preludes " or prefatory addresses (irpooiµta) with which the rhapsodists ushered in their recitations of epic poetry . The " prelude " might be addressed to the presiding See also:

• GOD

god of the festival, or to any See also:

• LOCAL

local deity whom the reciter wished to See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour . The pieces (of which there are 33) range in date perhaps from 750 to 500 B.C . (though some authorities assign See also:

• DATES

dates as See also:

• LATE

late as the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.; see ed. by Sikes and See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen, e.g. p . 228), and it is probable that the collection was ' For authorities and criticisms see T . W . Allen in Classical Quarterly (See also:

• JAN

Jan. and See also:

• APRIL

April 1908), The Homeric question . cyclic Odyssey . The grammarian See also:

• PROCLUS, or PROCULUS (A.D. 410-485)

Proclus (A.D . 140) has poems .

preserved the names and subjects of some of these; but the' fragments are very scanty . The Nostoi or Homeward Voyages, by Agias (or Hagias) of Troezen, filled up the See also:

• GAP

gap of formed in See also:

• ATTICA

Attica, for the use of rhapsodists . The See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style is that of the Ionian or Homeric epos; but there are also several traces of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school . The principal " hymns " are (I) to Apollo (generally treated as two or more hymns combined in one); (2) to See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes; (3) to See also:

• APHRODITE

Aphrodite; and (4) to Demeter . The hymn to Apollo, quoted by See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides (iii . 104) as Homer's, is of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• INTEREST

interest on account of the lines describing the Ionian festival at See also:

• DELOS

Delos . Two celebrated pieces of a sportive kind passed under Homer's name . The Margitesa comic poem on one " who knew many things but knew them all badly "—is regarded by Aristotle as the earliest germ of See also:

• COMEDY

comedy, and was possibly as old as 700 B.C . Only a few lines remain . The Batracho(myo)machia, or See also:

• BATTLE

Battle of the Frogs and Mice probably belongs to the decline of Greek literature, perhaps to the 2nd century B.C.' About 300 verses of it are extant . In the Iliad and the Odyssey the personal opinions or sympathies of the poet may sometimes be conjectured, but they are Trans!. not declared or even hinted . Hesiod, indeed, sometion from times gives us a glimpse of his own troubles or views .

epos to Yet Hesiod is, on the whole, essentially a prophet . elegy . The See also:

• MESSAGE (a word occurring in slightly different forms in several languages, e.g. Fr. message, Span. mensaje, Ital. messagio; adapted from the Low Lat. missaticum, from mittere)

message which he delivers is not from himself; the truths which he imparts have not been discovered by his own See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search . He is the See also:

• MOUTHPIECE (Fr. embouchure; Ger. Mundstuck; Ital. bocchino)

mouthpiece of the Delphian Apollo . Personal See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion and feeling may tinge his utterance, but they do not determine its See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general complexion . The egotism is a single See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread; it is not the basis of the texture . Epic poetry was in Greece the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of all other poetry; for many centuries no other kind was generally cultivated, no other could speak to the whole people . Politically, the age was monarchical or aristocratic; intellectually, it was too See also:

• SIMPLE

simple for the See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of thought or emotion . See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings and princes loved to hear of the great deeds of their ancestors; See also:

• COMMON

common men loved to hear of them too, for they had no other interest . The mind of Greece found no subject of contemplation so attractive as the warlike past of the race, or so useful as that lore which experience and tradition had bequeathed . But in the course of the 8th century B.C. the See also:

• RULE

rule of hereditary princes began to disappear . See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

Monarchy gave See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to See also:

• OLIGARCHY (Gr. oXiyot, few, apxil, rule)

oligarchy, and this—often after the intermediate phase of a tyrannis—to See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

democracy .

Such a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change was necessarily favourable to the growth of reflection . The private See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen is no longer a mere See also:

• CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab. sifr, void)

cipher, the Homeric -rnr, a unit in the dim multitude of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king-ruled folk; he gains more See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent action, his See also:

• MENTAL

mental See also:

• HORIZON (Gr. 6pfTwv, dividing)

horizon is widened, his life becomes See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller and more interesting . He begins to feel the need of expressing the thoughts and feelings that are stirred in him . But as yet a prose literature does not exist; the new thoughts, like the old heroic stories, must still be told in verse . The forms of verse created by this need were the Elegiac and the Iambic . The elegiac See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre is, in form, a simple variation on the epic metre, obtained by docking the second of two hexameters so as elegy. to make it a verse of five feet or See also:

• MEASURES

measures . But -the poetical capabilities of the elegiac See also:

• COUPLET

couplet are of a wholly different kind from those of heroic verse . EXeyor seems to be the Greek form of a name given by the Carians and Lydians to a lament for the dead . This was accompanied by the soft music of the Lydian See also:

• FLUTE

flute, which continued to be associated with Greek elegy . The non-Hellenic origin of elegy is indicated by this very fact . The flute was to the Greeks an See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic instrument—See also:

• STRING

string See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments were those which they made their own —and it would hardly have been wedded by them to a species of poetry which had arisen among themselves . The early elegiac poetry of Greece was by no means confined to See also:

• MOURNING (from the verb " to mourn," to be sorrowful, 0. Eng. murnan; cf. O.H.G. mornen, Goth. maurnan, to be anxious, O.N. morna, to pine away; by some referred to root seen in Gr. jdptpva, sorrow, by others to root mer-, to die)

mourning for the dead .

War, love, politics, proverbial philosophy, were in turn its themes; it dealt, in fact, with the chief interest of the poet and his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, whatever that might be at the time . It is the See also:

• DIRECT

direct expression of the poet's own thoughts, addressed to a sympathizing society . This is its first characteristic . The second is that, even when most pathetic or most spirited, it still preserves, on the whole, the tone of conversation or of ' Others attribute it, as well as the Margites, to Pigres of Hallcarnassus, the supposed See also:

• BROTHER

brother of the Carian See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen See also:

• ARTEMISIA
• ARTEMISIA (159o-1642)

Artemisia, who fought on the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.narrative . Greek elegy stops short of lyric passion . See also:

• ENGLISH

English elegy, whether funereal as in See also:

• DRYDEN, JOHN (1631-1700)

Dryden and See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope, or reflective as in See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

Gray, is usually true to the same normal type . Roman elegy is not equally true to it, but sometimes tends to See also:

• TRENCH, RICHARD CHENEVIX (1807-1886)

trench on the lyric province . For Roman elegy is mainly amatory or sentimental; and its masters imitated, as a rule, not the early Greek elegists, not See also:

• TYRTAEUS

Tyrtaeus or Theognis, but the later Alexandrian elegists, such as See also:

• CALLIMACHUS

Callimachus or See also:

• PHILETAS

Philetas . See also:

• CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-J4 B.C.)

Catullus introduced the metre to Latin literature, and used it with more fidelity than his followers to its genuine Greek inspiration . Elegy, as we have seen, was the first slight deviation from epos . But almost at the same time another species arose which had nothing in common with epos, either in form or in spirit . This was the iambic .

The word ZaµOos+ Iambic verse. iambus (See also:

• HARROW

harrow, to dart or shoot) was used in reference to the licensed raillery at the festivals of Demeter; it was the See also:

• MAIDEN, or MAID

maiden Iambe, the myth said, who See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew the first smile from the mourning goddess . The iambic metre was at first used for See also:

• SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below)

satire; and it was in this See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain that it was chiefly employed by its earliest See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master of See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note, See also:

• ARCHILOCHUS

Archilochus of See also:

• PAROS, or PARO

Paros (67o B.c.) . But it was adapted to the expression generally of any pointed thought . Thus it was suitable to fables . Elegiac and iambic poetry both belong to the borderland between epic and lyric . While, however, elegy stands nearer to epos, iambic stands nearer to the lyric . Iambic poetry can See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express the personal feeling of the poet with greater intensity than elegy does; on the other hand, it has not the lyric flexibility, self-See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment or glow . As we see in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of Solon, iambic verse could serve for the expression of that deeper thought, that more inward self-communing, for which the elegiac form would have been inappropriate . But these two forms of poetry, both Ionian, the elegiac and the iambic, belong essentially to the same stage of the literature . They stand between the Ionian epos and the lyric poetry of the Aeolians and Dorians . The earliest of the Greek elegists, See also:

• CALLINUS

Callinus and Tyrtaeus, use elegy to rouse a warlike spirit in sinking See also:

• HEARTS

hearts . Archilochus too wrote warlike elegy, but used it also in other strains, as in lament for the dead .

The elegy of See also:

• MIMNERMUS

Mimnermus of Smyrna or See also:

• COLOPHON

Colophon is the plaintive farewell of an ease-loving Ionian to the days of Ionian freedom . In Solon elegy takes a higher range; it becomes political and ethical.2 Theognis represents the maturer See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of politics with a proverbial philosophy . Another gnomic poet was See also:

• PHOCYLIDES

Phocylides of Miletus; an admonitory poem extant under his name is probably the work of an Alexandrine Jewish See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian . See also:

• XENOPHANES

Xenophanes gives a philosophic strain to elegy . With See also:

• SIMONIDES (or SEMONIDES) OF AMORGOS

Simonides of See also:

• CEOS (Gr. Kiws, mod. Zea or Tzia)

Ceos it reverts, in an exquisite form, to its earliest destination, and becomes the vehicle of See also:

• EPITAPH (Gr. it oa¢cos, sc. X/yos, from bri, upon, and ra¢os, a tomb)

epitaph on those who See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian Wars . Iambic verse was used by Simonides (or Semonides) of Amorgus, as by Archilochus, for satire—but satire directed against classes rather than persons . Solon's iambics so far preserve the old associations of the metre that they represent the polemical or controversial side of his political poetry . Hipponax of See also:

• EPHESUS
• EPHESUS, COUNCIL OF

Ephesus was another iambic satirist—using the oKc4cev (" limping ") or choliambic verse, produced by substituting a spondee for an iambus in the last place . But it was not until the rise of the Attic drama that the full capabilities of iambic verse were seen . The lyric poetry of early Greece may be regarded as the final form of that effort at self-expression which in the elegiac and iambic is still incomplete . The lyric expression is deeper and more impassioned . Its intimate union with music and with the rhythmical See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of the See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance gives to it more of an ideal character .

'At the same time the,continuity of the music permits pauses to the voice—'pauses necessary as reliefs after a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax . Before lyric poetry could be effective, it was necessary that some progress should have been made in the art of music . The instrument used by the Greeks to accompany the voice was the four-stringed See also:

• LYRE (Gr. Xupa)

lyre, and the first great See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in Greek music was when See also:

• TERPANDER

Terpander of Lesbos (66o B.C.), by adding three strings, gave the lyre the 2 The extant fragments of Solon have been augmented