See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

ROBERT See also:

• HALLAM
• ROBERT HALLAM (d. 1417)

HALLAM (d. 1417)  , See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• SALISBURY
• SALISBURY, EARLS OF
• SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNECECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903)
• SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, 1ST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612)
• SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4TH EARL OF (1388-1428)
• SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPEE), EARL OF (d. 1226)

Salisbury and See also:

• ENGLISH

English representative at the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of See also:

• CONSTANCE
• CONSTANCE (Ger. Konstanz or Costnitz)
• CONSTANCE, COUNCIL OF
• CONSTANCE, LAKE OF (called by the Romans Lacus Brigantinus or lake of Bregenz, and now usually named in German Bodensee, as well as the " Swabian Sea ")

Constance, was educated at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, and was See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor of the university from 1403 to 1405 . In the latter See also:

• YEAR

year the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope nominated him to be See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch-bishop of See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, but the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king objected . However, in 1407 he was consecrated by See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory XII. at See also:

• SIENA

Siena as bishop of Salisbury . At the council of See also:

• PISA
• PISA, COUNCIL OF (1409)

Pisa in 1409 he was one of the English established institutions of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country." No See also:

• ACCUSATION (Lat. accusatio, accusare, to challenge to a causa, a suit or trial at law)

accusation made by a critic ever See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell so wide of the See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark . See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

Absolute See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice is the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard which See also:

• HALLAM
• HALLAM, ROBERT (d. 1417)

Hallam set himself and maintained . His view of constitutional See also:

• HISTORY

history was that it should contain only so much of the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general history of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time as bears directly on specific changes in the organization of the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, including therein judicial as well as ecclesiastical institutions . But while abstaining from irrelevant See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical discussions, Hallam dealt with statesmen and policies with the See also:

• CALM

calm and fearless impartiality of a See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge . It was his cool treatment of such sanctified names as See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles, See also:

• CRANMER, THOMAS (1489-1556)

Cranmer and See also:

• LAUD (Lat. laws)
• LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645)

Laud that provoked the indignation of See also:

• SOUTHEY, ROBERT (1774-1843)

Southey and the Quarterly, who forgot that the same impartial measure was extended to statesmen on the other See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side . If Hallam can ever be said to have deviated from perfect fairness, it was in the tacit See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the 19th-See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century theory of the constitution was the right theory in previous centuries, and that those who departed from it on one side or the other were in the wrong . He did unconsciously antedate' the constitution, and it is clear from incidental allusions in his last See also:

• WORK

work that he did not regard with favour the democratic changes which he thought to be impending . Hallam, like See also:

• MACAULAY, THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, BARON (1800-1859)

Macaulay, ultimately referred all political questions to the standard of Whig constitutionalism . But though his work is thus, like that of many historians, coloured by his opinions, this was not the outcome of a conscious purpose, and he was scrupulously conscientious in See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting and weighing his materials .

In this he was helped by his legal training, and it was doubtless this fact which made the Constitutional History one of the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-books of English politics, to which men of all parties appealed, and which, in spite of all the work of later writers, still leaves it a standard authority . Like the Constitutional History,the Introduction to the Literature of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe continues one of the branches of inquiry which had been opened in the -View of the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Ages . In the first See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter of the Literature, which is to a See also:

• GREAT

great extent supplementary to the last chapter of the Middle Ages, Hallam sketches the state of literature in Europe down to the end of the 14th century: the extinction of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient learning which followed the fall of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

empire and the rise of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity; the preservation of the Latin See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language in the services of the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church; and the slow revival of letters, which began to show itself soon after the 7th century—" the See also:

• NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir-es-semt, "opposite to the zenith ")

nadir of the human mind "—had been passed . For the first century and a See also:

• HALF

half of his See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period he is mainly occupied with a See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review of classical learning, and he adopts the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of taking See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short decennial periods and noticing the most remarkable See also:

• WORKS

works which they produced . The rapid growth of literature in the 16th century compels him to resort to a See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification of subjects . Thus in the period 1520-1550 we have See also:

• SEPARATE

separate chapters on ancient literature, See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology, speculative See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy and See also:

• JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudenlia, knowledge of law, from jus, right, and prudentia, from providere, to foresee)
• JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE

jurisprudence, the literature of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste, and scientific and See also:

• MISCELLANEOUS

miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is carried further of course in the later periods . Thus See also:

• POETRY

poetry, the See also:

• DRAMA (literally "action," from Gr. Snail, act or do)

drama and polite literature See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the subjects of separate chapters . One inconvenient result of this arrangement is that the same author is scattered over many chapters, according as his works fall within this See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category or that period of time . Names like See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare, See also:

• GROTIUS, HUGO (1583-1645)

Grotius, See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon, See also:

• HOBBES, THOMAS (1588–1679)

Hobbes appear in half a dozen different places . The individuality of great authors is thus dissipated except when it has been preserved by an occasional See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice of the arrangement—and this defect, if it is to be esteemed a defect, is increased by the very sparing references to See also:

• PERSONAL

personal history and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character with which Hallam was obliged to content himself . His plan excluded See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical history, nor is the work, he tells us, to be regarded as one of reference . It is rigidly an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the books which would make a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete library of the period.,' arranged according to the date of their publication and the nature of their subjects .

The history of institutions like See also:

• UNIVERSITIES

universities and See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies, and that of great popular movements like the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation, are of course 1 Technical subjects like See also:

• PAINTING

painting or English See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law have been excluded by Hallam, and history and theology only partially treated . representatives . On the 6th of See also:

• JUNE

June 1411 Pope See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• XXIII

XXIII. made Hallam a See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal, but there was some irregularity, and his See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title was not recognized . At the council of Constance (q.v.), which met in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1414, Hallam was the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief English See also:

• ENVOY (Fr. envoye, " sent ")

envoy . There he at once took a prominent position, as an See also:

• ADVOCATE (Lat. advocatus, from advocare, to summon, especially in law to call in the aid of a counsel or witness, and so generally to summon to one's assistance)

advocate of the cause of Church reform, and of the superiority of the council to the pope . In the discussions which led up to the deposition of John XXIII. on the 29th of May 1415 he had a leading See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share . With the trials of John Hus and See also:

• JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859– )
• JEROME, ST (HIERONYMUS, in full EUSEBIUS SOPHRONIUS HIERONYMUS) (c. 340–420)

Jerome of See also:

• PRAGUE (Ger. Prag; Bohemian Praha)

Prague he had less concern . The See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• SIGISMUND (1368-1437)

Sigismund, through whose See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence the council had been assembled, was absent during the whole of 1416 on a See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic See also:

• MISSION

mission in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England; but when he returned to Constance in See also:

• JANUARY

January 1417, as the open ally of the English king, Hallam as See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry's trusted representative obtained increased importance . Hallam contrived skilfully to emphasize English See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige by delivering the address of welcome to Sigismund on his formal reception . Afterwards, under his See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master's direction, he gave the emperor vigorous support in the endeavour to secure a reform of the Church, before the council proceeded to the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of a new pope . This See also:

• MATTER

matter was still undecided when Hallam died suddenly, on the 4th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1417 . After his See also:

• DEATH

death the direction of the English nation fell into less skilful hands, with the result that the cardinals were able to secure the immediate election of a new pope (See also:

• MARTIN (Martinus)
• MARTIN, BON LOUIS HENRI (1810-1883)
• MARTIN, CLAUD (1735-1800)
• MARTIN, FRANCOIS XAVIER (1762-1846)
• MARTIN, HOMER DODGE (1836-1897)
• MARTIN, JOHN (1789-1854)
• MARTIN, LUTHER (1748-1826)
• MARTIN, SIR THEODORE (1816-1909)
• MARTIN, SIR WILLIAM FANSHAWE (1801–1895)
• MARTIN, ST (c. 316-400)
• MARTIN, WILLIAM (1767-1810)

Martin V., elected on the 1 rth of November): It has been supposed that the See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the reformers by the English was due entirely to Hallam's death; but it is more likely that Henry V., foreseeing the possible need for a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of front, had given Hallam discretionary See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers which the bishop's successors used with too little See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment .

Hallam himself, who had the confidence of Sigismund and was generally respected for his straightforward See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, might have achieved a better result . Hallam was buried in the See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral at Constance, where his See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb near the high See also:

• ALTAR (Lat. altare, from alias, high; some ancient etymological guesses are recorded by St Isidore of Seville in Etymologiae xv. 4)

altar is marked by a See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass of English workmanship . For the acts of the council of Constance see H. von der See also:

• HARDT, HERMANN VON DER (166o-1746)
• HARDT, THE

Hardt's Cora-ilium Constantiense, and H . Finke's Acta concilii Constanciensis . For a See also:

• MODERN

modern account see-Mandell See also:

• CREIGHTON, MANDELL (1843—1901)

Creighton's History of the Papacy (6 vols., See also:

• LONDON

London, 1897) . (C . L .