See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)  , formerly an See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, but since 1866 a See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia . It is bounded on the N. by the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea, See also:

• HOLSTEIN
• HOLSTEIN, FRIEDRICH VON (1837–1909)

Holstein, See also:

• HAMBURG

Hamburg and See also:

• MECKLENBURG

Mecklenburg-See also:

• SCHWERIN
• SCHWERIN, KURT CHRISTOPH, COUNT VON (1684–1757)

Schwerin, E. and S.E. by Prussian See also:

• SAXONY
• SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen)

Saxony and the duchy of See also:

• BRUNSWICK
• BRUNSWICK (Ger. Braunschweig)
• BRUNSWICK, KARL WILHELM FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1735-18o6)

Brunswick, S.W. by the Prussian provinces of See also:

• HESSE
• HESSE (Lat. Hessia, Ger. Hessen)

Hesse-See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau and See also:

• WESTPHALIA (Ger. Westfalen)
• WESTPHALIA, TREATY OF

Westphalia, and W. by See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland . These boundaries include the See also:

• GRAND

grand-duchy of See also:

• OLDENBURG

Oldenburg and the See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• BREMEN

Bremen, the former stretching southward from the North Sea nearly to the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern boundary of See also:

• HANOVER
• HANOVER (Ger. Hannover)

Hanover . A small portion of the province in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south is separated from Hanover proper by the inter-position of See also:

• PART

part of Brunswick . On the 23rd of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1873 the province was increased by the addition of the See also:

• JADE
• JADE, or JAHDE

Jade territory (See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased by Prussia from Oldenburg), lying south-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of the See also:

• ELBE (the Albis of the Romans and the Labe of the Czechs)

Elbe and containing the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• NAVAL

naval station and See also:

• ARSENAL

arsenal of Wilhelmshaven . The See also:

• AREA

area of the province is 14,870 sq. m . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Features.—The greater part of Hanover is a See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain with sandhills, See also:

• HEATH
• HEATH, BENJAMIN (1704-1766)
• HEATH, WILLIAM (1737—1814)

heath and See also:

• MOOR

moor . The most fertile districts See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie on the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of the Elbe and near the North Sea, where, as in Holland, See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich meadows are preserved from encroachment of the sea by broad dikes and deep ditches, kept in repair at great expense . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main feature of the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern plain is the so-called Liineburger See also:

• HEIDE

Heide, a vast expanse of moor and fen, mainly covered with See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low brushwood (though here and there are oases of See also:

• FINE

fine 'See also:

• BEECH

beech and See also:

• OAK (O. Eng., (lc)

oak See also:

• WOODS, LEONARD (1774-1854)
• WOODS, SIR ALBERT (1816-1904)

woods) and intersected by shallow valleys, and extending almost due north from the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of Hanover to the southern See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm of the Elbe at See also:

• HARBURG

Harburg . The southern portion of the province is hilly, and in the See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Klausenburg, containing the Harz, mountainous . The higher elevations are covered by dense forests of See also:

• FIR

fir and See also:

• LARCH (from the Ger. Larche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix)

larch, and the See also:

• LOWER

lower slopes with See also:

• DECIDUOUS (from Lat. decidere, to fall down)

deciduous trees . The eastern portion of the northern plain is covered with forests of fir .

The whole of Hanover dips from the Harz Mountains to the north, and the See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers consequently flow in that direction . The three See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief rivers of the province HANOVER 923 are the Elbe in the north-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east, where it mainly forms the boundary and receives the navigable tributaries Jeetze, See also:

• ILMENAU

Ilmenau, Seve, See also:

• ESTE
• ESTE (anc. Ateste, q.v.)

Este, Luhe, Schwinge and Medem; the See also:

• WESER (O. Ger. Visuracha, Wisura, Lat. Visurgis)

Weser in the centre, with its important tributary the Aller (navigable from See also:

• CELLE

Celle downwards) ; and in the west the See also:

• EMS

Ems, with its tributaries the Aa and the See also:

• LEDA

Leda . Still farther west is the Vecht, which, rising in Westphalia, flows to the Zuider Zee . Canals are numerous and connect the various See also:

• RIVER

river systems . The See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal lakes are the Steinhuder See also:

• MEER, JAN VAN DER (1632-1675)
• MEER, OSWALD (1809–1883)

Meer, about 4 m. See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and 2 m. broad, and 20 fathoms deep, on the See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders of Schaumburg-See also:

• LIPPE

Lippe; the Dummersee, on the borders of Oldenburg, about 12 m. in See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit; the lakes of Bederkesa and some others in the moorlands of the north; the Seeburger See, near See also:

• DUDERSTADT

Duderstadt; and the Oderteich, in the Harz, 2100 ft. above the level of the sea . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The climate in the low-lying districts near the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast is moist and foggy, in the plains mild, on the Harz mountains severe and variable . In See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring the prevailing winds See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow from the N.E. and E., in summer from the S.W . The mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature is about 46° Fahr.; in the See also:

• TOWN

town of Hanover it is higher . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average annual rainfall is about 23.5 in.; but this varies greatly in different districts . In the west the Herauch, a thick See also:

• FOG

fog arising from the burning of the See also:

• MOORS (Lat. Mauri; Gr. Mavpot, dark men)
• MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES

moors, is a See also:

• PLAGUE (in Gr. Xotµos; in Lat. pestis, pestilentia)

plague of frequent occurrence . See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population; Divisions.—The province contains an area of 14,869 sq. m., and the See also:

• TOTAL

total population, according to the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1905, was 2,759,699 (1,384,161 See also:

• MALES

males and 1,375,538 See also:

• FEMALES

females) . In this connexion it is noticeable that in Hanover, almost alone among See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German states and provinces, there is a considerable proportion of male births over See also:

• FEMALE

female .

The See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of the population is 175 to the sq. m . (See also:

• ENGLISH

English), and the proportion of See also:

• URBAN
• URBAN (Urbanus)

urban to rural population, roughly, as I to 3 of the inhabitants . The province is divided into the six Regierungsbezirke (or departments) of Hanover, See also:

• HILDESHEIM

Hildesheim, See also:

• LUNEBURG

Luneburg, See also:

• STADE
• STADE, BERNHARD (1848–1906)

Stade, See also:

• OSNABRUCK

Osnabruck and See also:

• AURICH

Aurich, and these again into Kreise (circles, or See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government districts)—76 in all . The chief towns—containing more than 10,000 inhabitants—are Hanover, See also:

• LINDEN

Linden, Osnabruck, Hildesheim, Geestemunde, Wilhelmshaven, Harburg, Luneburg, Celle, See also:

• GOTTINGEN

Gottingen and See also:

• EMDEN

Emden . Religious See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics show that 84% of the inhabitants belong to the Evangelical-Lutheran See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, 17 to the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic and less than 1 %° to the Jewish communities . The Roman Catholics are mostly gathered around the episcopal See also:

• SEES

sees of Hildesheim and Osnabruck and See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to See also:

• MUNSTER
• MUNSTER, SEBASTIAN (1489-1552)

Munster (in Westphalia) on the western border, and the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews in the towns . A See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal for the whole province sits at Celle, and there are eight See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior courts . Hanover returns 19 members to the Reichstag (imperial See also:

• DIET

diet) and 36 to the Abgeordnetenhaus (lower See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house) of the Prussian See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament (Landlag) . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education.—Among the educational institutions of the province the university of Gottingen stands first, with an average yearly attendance of 1500 students . There are, besides, a technical See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college in Hanover, an See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

academy of forestry in See also:

• MUNDEN
• MUNDEN, JOSEPH SHEPHERD (1758—1832)

Munden, a See also:

• MINING

mining college in See also:

• CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTIIAL

Clausthal, a military school and a veterinary college (both in Hanover), 26 gymnasia (classical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools), 18 semi-classical, and 14 commercial schools . There are also two naval See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies, asylums for the See also:

• DEAF

deaf and dumb, and numerous charitable institutions . See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

Agriculture.—Though agriculture constitutes the most important See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry in the province, it is still in a very backward state .

The greater part of the See also:

• SOIL

soil is of inferior quality, and much that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste . Of the entire area of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country 28.6 % is arable, 16.2 in meadow or pasture See also:

• LAND

land, 14% in forests, 37.2 % in uncultivated moors, heaths, &c.; from 17 to 18 % is in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the state . The best agriculture is to be found in the districts of Hildesheim, See also:

• CALENBERG, or KALENBERG

Calenberg, Gottingen and Grubenhagen, on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East See also:

• FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND

Friesland . See also:

• RYE

Rye is generally grown for See also:

• BREAD

bread . See also:

• FLAX

Flax, for which much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article of export, chiefly, however, in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• YARN

yarn . Potatoes, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp, turnips, hops, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco and See also:

• BEET

beet are also extensively grown, the latter, in connexion with the See also:

• SUGAR

sugar industry, showing each See also:

• YEAR

year a larger return . Apples, See also:

• PEARS

pears, plums and cherries are the principal kinds of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit cultivated, while the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild red cranberries from the Harz and the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black bilberries from the Luneburger Heide form an important article of export . Live Stock.—Hanover is renowned for its See also:

• CATTLE (Norman Fr. catel, from Late Lat. capitale, wealth or property, a word applied in the feudal system to movable property and particularly to live stock, and surviving in its wider meaning as " chattel " or " chattle ")

cattle and live stock generally . Of these there were counted in 1900 1,115,022 See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of horned cattle, 824,000 See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep, 1,556,000 pigs, and 230,000 goats . The Luneburger Heide yields an excellent breed of sheep, the Heidschnucken, which equal the Southdowns of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England in delicacy of flavour . Horses famous for their See also:

• SIZE

size and quality are reared in the marshes of Aurich and Stade, in Hildesheim and Hanover; and, for breeding purposes, in the See also:

• STUD

stud See also:

• FARM

farm of Celle . Bees are principally kept on the Liineburger Heide, and the annual yield of See also:

• HONEY (Chin. me ; Sansk. madhu, mead, honey; cf. A.S. medo, medu, mead; Gr. p Xt, in which 0 or b is changed into X; Lat. mel ; Fr. miel ; A.S. hung ; Ger. Honig)

honey is very considerable .

Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist lowlands; their flesh is salted for domestic See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption during the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter, and their feathers are prepared for See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale . The rivers yield See also:

• TROUT (Salmo trutta)

trout, See also:

• SALMON
• SALMON, GEORGE (1819-1904)

salmon (in the Weser) and See also:

• CRAYFISH (Fr. ecrevisse)

crayfish . The sea See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries are important and have their chief centre at Geestemunde . Mining.—Minerals occur in great variety and abundance . The Harz Mountains are rich in See also:

• SILVER

silver, See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron and See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper; See also:

• COAL

coal is found around Osnabruck, on the See also:

• DEISTER

Deister, at Osterwald, &c., See also:

• LIGNITE (Lat. lignum, wood)

lignite in various places; See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt-springs of great richness exist at Egestorfshall 924 and Neuhall near Hanover, and at Luneburg; and See also:

• PETROLEUM (Lat. Petra, rock, and oleuin, oil)

petroleum may be obtained south of Celle . In the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold regions of the northern low-lands See also:

• PEAT (possibly connected with Med. Lat. petia, pecia, piece, ultimately of Celtic origin; cf. O. Celt. pet, O. Ir. pit, Welsh peth, portion)

peat occurs in beds of immense thickness . Manufactures.—See also:

• WORKS

Works for the manufacture of iron, copper, silver, lead, See also:

• VITRIOL

vitriol and See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur are carried on to a large extent . The iron works are very important: smelting is carried on in the Harz and near Osnabrck; there are extensive foundries and See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine factories at Hanover, Linden, Osnabruck, See also:

• HAMELN

Hameln, Geestemunde, Harburg, See also:

• OSTERODE

Osterode, &c., and manufactories of arms at See also:

• HERZBERG

Herzberg, and of See also:

• CUTLERY (Fr. coutellerie, from the Lat. cultellus, a little knife)

cutlery in the towns of the Harz and in the Sollinger See also:

• FOREST

Forest . The textile See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries are prosecuted chiefly in the towns . See also:

• LINEN

Linen yarn and See also:

• CLOTH

cloth are largely manufactured, especially in the south about Osnabruck and Hildesheim, and See also:

• BLEACHING

bleaching is engaged in extensively ; woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the south about See also:

• EINBECK

Einbeck, Gottingen and Hameln; See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton-See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning and See also:

• WEAVING

weaving have their principal seats at Hanover and Linden . See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

Glass houses, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper-See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills, See also:

• POTTERIES, THE

potteries, See also:

• TILE (0. Eng. tigel, Fr. tuile, connected with Lat. tegula)

tile works and tobacco-See also:

• PIPE

pipe works are numerous . See also:

• WAX

Wax is bleached to a considerable extent, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, See also:

• VINEGAR

vinegar works and See also:

• BRANDY

brandy distilleries .

See also:

• SHIPBUILDING

Shipbuilding is an important industry, especially at Wilhelmshaven, See also:

• PAPENBURG

Papenburg, See also:

• LEER

Leer, Stade and Harburg; and at Miinden river-See also:

• BARGES

barges are built . See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

Commerce.—Although the carrying See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade of Hanover is to a great extent absorbed by Hamburg and Bremen, the See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping of the province counted, in 1903, 750 sailing vessels and 86 steamers of, together, 55,498 registered tons . The natural See also:

• PORT

port is Bremen-Geestemunde and to it is directed the river See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic down the Weser, which practically forms the chief commercial artery of the province . Communications.—The roads throughout are, on the whole, well laid, and those connecting the principal towns macadamized . Hanover is intersected by important See also:

• TRUNK (Fr. tronc, Lat. truncus, cut off, maimed)

trunk lines of railway; notably the lines from See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin to See also:

• COLOGNE (Ger. Koln, or officially, since 1900, Coln)

Cologne, from Hamburg to See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort-on-Main, from Hamburg to Bremen and Cologne, and from Berlin to See also:

• AMSTERDAM
• AMSTERDAM (NEw AMSTERDAM)

Amsterdam . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The name Hanover (Hohenufer = high See also:

• BANK

bank), originally confined to the town which became the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of the duchy of Luneburg-Calenberg, came gradually into use to designate, first, the duchy itself, and secondly, the electorate of Brunswick-Luneburg; and it was officially recognized as the name of the, state when in 1814 the electorate was raised to the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of a kingdom . The See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early history of Hanover is merged in that of the duchy of Brunswick (q.v.), from which the duchy of Brunswick-Luneburg and its offshoots, the duchies of Luneburg-Celle and Luneburg-Calenberg have sprung . Ernest I . (1497-1546), See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who introduced the reformed doctrines into Luneburg, obtained the whole of this duchy in 1539; and in 1569 his two surviving sons made an arrangement which was afterwards responsible for the See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth of the kingdom of Hanover . By this agreement the greater part of the duchy, with its capital at Celle, came to See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William (1535-1592), the younger of the See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers, who gave See also:

• LAWS

laws to his land and added to its area; and this duchy of Luneburg-Celle was subsequently ruled in turn by four of his sons: Ernest II . (1564-1611), See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian (1566-1633), See also:

• AUGUSTUS (a name 1 derived from Lat. augeo, increase, i.e. venerable, majestic, Gr. Ee0avr6s)

Augustus (d . 1636) and See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick (d .

1648) . - In addition to these four princes Duke William See also:

• LEFT

left three other sons, and in 1610 the seven brothers entered into a compact that the duchy should not be divided, and that only one of them should marry and continue the See also:

• FAMILY

family . Casting lots to determine this question, the See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell upon the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth See also:

• BROTHER

brother, See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George (1582-1641), who was a prominent soldier during the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the See also:

• THIRTY

Thirty Years' See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War and saw service in almost all parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, fighting successively for Christian IV. of Den-See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark, the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• FERDINAND
• FERDINAND (1577-1650)
• FERDINAND (COLOGNE)
• FERDINAND (Span. Fernando or Hernando; Ital. Ferdinando or Ferrante; in O. H. Ger. Herinand, i.e. " brave in the host," from O. H. G. Heri, "army," A. S. here, Mod. Ger. Heer, and the Goth. nan]jan, " to dare ")
• FERDINAND, MAXIMILIAN KARL LEOPOLD MARIA

Ferdinand II., and for the Swedes both before and after the See also:

• DEATH

death of Gustavus See also:

• ADOLPHUS, JOHN LEYCESTER (1795-1862)

Adolphus . In 1617 he aided his brother, Duke Christian, to add Grubenhagen to Luneburg, and after the extinction of the family of Brunswick-See also:

• WOLFENBUTTEL

Wolfenbuttel in 1634, he obtained Calenberg for himself, making Hanover the capital of his small dukedom: In 1648, on Duke Frederick's death, George's eldest son, Christian See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis (d . 166, 5), became duke of Luneburg-Celle; and at this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time he handed over Calenberg, which he had ruled since his See also:

• FATHER

father's death, to his second brother, George William (d . 17o5) . When Christian Louis died George William succeeded him in Luneburg-Celle; but the duchy was also claimed by a younger brother, See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Frederick, a cultured and enlightened See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince who had forsaken the Lutheran faith of his family and had become a Roman Catholic . Soon, however, by an arrangement John Frederickreceived Calenberg and Grubenhagen, which he ruled in See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion, creating a See also:

• STANDING

standing See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army and modelling his court after that of Louis XIV., and which came on his death in 1679 to his youngest brother, Ernest Augustus (1630 1698), the See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of Osnabruck . During the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• WARS

wars of aggression the Luneburg princes were eagerly courted by Louis XIV. and by his opponents; and after some hesitation George William, influenced by Ernest Augustus, fought among the Imperialists, while John Frederick was ranged on the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . In 1689 George William was one of the claimants for the duchy of See also:

• SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887)
• SAXE, MAURICE, COMTE DE (1696-1750)

Saxe-See also:

• LAUENBURG

Lauenburg, which was left without a ruler in that year; and after a struggle with John George III., elector of Saxony, and other rivals, he was invested with the duchy by the emperor See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold I . It was, however, his more ambitious brother, Ernest Augustus, who did most for the See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige and See also:

• ADVANCEMENT

advancement of the house . Having introduced the principle of See also:

• PRIMOGENITURE

primogeniture into Calenberg in 1682, Ernest determined to secure for himself the position of an elector, and the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of Europe and the exigencies of the emperor favoured his pre-tensions .

He made skilful use of Leopold's difficulties; and in 1692, in return for lavish promises of assistance to the See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire and the Habsburgs, the emperor granted him the rank and See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of elector of Brunswick-Luneburg with the See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office of See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard-See also:

• BEARER

bearer in the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Roman Empire . Indignant protests followed this proceeding . A See also:

• LEAGUE

league was formed to prevent any addition to the electoral college; France and See also:

• SWEDEN
• SWEDEN [Sverige]
• SWEDEN, NORWAY AND

Sweden were called upon for assistance; and the constitution of the Empire was reduced to a state of See also:

• CHAOS

chaos . This agitation, however, soon died away; and in 1708 George Louis, the son and successor of Ernest Augustus, was recognized as an elector by the imperial diet . George Louis married his See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin See also:

• SOPHIA (1630-1714)

Sophia Dorothea, the only See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child of George William of Luneburg-Celle; and on his See also:

• UNCLE

uncle's death in 1705 he See also:

• UNITED

united this duchy, together with Saxe-Lauenburg, with his paternal See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance of Calenberg or Hanover . His father, Ernest Augustus, had taken a step of great importance in the history of Hanover when he married Sophia, daughter of the elector See also:

• PALATINE (from Lat. palatium, a palace,)

palatine, Frederick V., and grand-daughter of See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James I. of England, for, through his See also:

• MOTHER

mother, the elector George Louis became, by the terms of the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

Settlement of 1701, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and See also:

• IRELAND
• IRELAND, CHURCH
• IRELAND, CHURCH OF
• IRELAND, JOHN (1761-1842)
• IRELAND, JOHN (1838- )
• IRELAND, WILLIAM HENRY (1777-1835)

Ireland in 1714 . From this time until the death of William IV. in 1837, Lune-See also:

• BURG

burg or Hanover, was ruled by the same See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign as Great Britain, and this See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union was not without important' results for both countries . Under George I . Hanover joined the See also:

• ALLIANCE

alliance against See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715; and by the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of See also:

• STOCKHOLM

Stockholm in See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 1719 the elector received the duchies of Bremen and See also:

• VERDEN

Verden, which formed an important addition to the electorate . His son and successor, George II., who founded the university of Gottingen in 1737, was on See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad terms with his brother-in-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law Frederick William I. of Prussia, and his See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew Frederick the Great; and in 1729 war between Prussia and Hanover was only just avoided . In 1743 George took up arms on behalf of the empress Maria See also:

• THERESA, ST (1515-1582)

Theresa; but in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1745 the danger in England from the See also:

• JACOBITES (from Lat. Jacobus, James)

Jacobites led him to sign the See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention of Hanover with Frederick the Great, although the struggle with France raged around his electorate until the peace of See also:

• AIX

Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 . Induced by See also:

• POLITICAL

political exigencies George allied himself with Frederick the Great when the Seven Years' War See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out in 1756; but in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1757 his son William Augustus, duke of See also:

• CUMBERLAND
• CUMBERLAND, DUKES AND EARLS OF
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1632-1718)
• CUMBERLAND, RICHARD (1732-1811)
• CUMBERLAND, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS

Cumberland, was compelled after his defeat at Hastenbeck to sign the convention of Klosterzeven and to abandon Hanover to the French .

English See also:

• MONEY

money, however, came to the See also:

• RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa,reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake)

rescue; in 1758 Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, cleared the electorate of the invader; and Hanover suffered no loss of territory at the peace of 1763 . Both George I. and George II. preferred Hanover to England as a See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence, and it was a frequent and perhaps justifiable cause of complaint that the interests of Great Britain were sacrificed to those of the smaller country . But George III. was more See also:

• BRITISH

British than either his grandfather or his great-grandfather, and owing to a variety of causes the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign policies of the two countries began to diverge in the later years of his reign . Two Britain . These liberal arrangements, however, did not entirely allay the discontent . A strong and energetic party endeavoured to thwart the working of the new See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, and matters came to a See also:

• CLIMAX, JOHN (c. 525–600 A.D.)

climax on the death of William IV. in 1837 . By the law of Hanover a woman could not ascend the See also:

• THRONE

throne, and accordingly Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, the fifth son of George III., and not See also:

• VICTORIA
• VICTORIA (or VITTORIA), TOMMASSO LUDOVICO DA (C. I540-C. 1613)
• VICTORIA [ALEXANDRINA VICTORIA]

Victoria, succeeded William as sovereign in 1837, thus separating the crowns of Great Britain and Hanover after a union of 123 years . Ernest, a prince with very autocratic ideas, had disapproved of the constitution of 1833, and his first important act as king was to declare it invalid . He appears to have been especially chagrined because the See also:

• CROWN

crown lands were not his personal See also:

• PROPERTY

property, but the whole of the new arrangements were repugnant to him . Seven Gottingen professors who protested against this proceeding were deprived of their chairs; and some of them, including F . C . See also:

• DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1785-186o)

Dahlmann and See also:

• JAKOB, LUDWIG HEINRICH VON (1759—1827)

Jakob See also:

• GRIMM, FRIEDRICH MELCHIOR, I
• GRIMM, JACOB LUDWIG CARL (1785-1863)
• GRIMM, WILHELM CARL (1786-1859)

Grimm, were banished from the country for See also:

• PUBLISHING

publishing their protest .

To See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save the constitution an appeal was made to the German See also:

• CONFEDERATION (Fr. confederation, Lat. confoederatio, from foedus, a league, foederare, to form a league)

Confederation, which Hanover had joined in 1815; but the federal diet declined to interfere, and in 184o Ernest altered the constitution to suit his own illiberal views . Recovering the crown lands, he abolished the principle of ministerial responsibility, the legislative See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of the two See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers, and other reforms, virtually restoring affairs to their condition before 1833 . The inevitable crisis was delayed until the stormy year 1848, when the king probably saved his crown by hastily giving back the constitution of 1833 . Order, however, having been restored, in 185o he dismissed the Liberal See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry and attempted to evade his concessions; a See also:

• BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS (1867– )

bitter struggle had just broken out when Ernest Augustus died in November 1851 . During this reign the foreign policy of Hanover both within and without Germany had been coloured by See also:

• JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from ja