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HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or SANDWICH ISLANDS)
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See also:HAWAII (HAWAIIAN or See also:SANDWICH ISLANDS) , a Territory of the See also:United States of See also:America, consisting of a See also:chain of islands in the See also:North Pacific Ocean, eight inhabited and several uninhabited . The inhabited islands See also:lie between latitudes 18° 54' and 22° 15' N., and between longitudes 154° 50' and 16o° 30' W., and extend about 380 M. from E.S.E. to W.N.W.; the uninhabited ones, See also:mere rocks and reefs, valuable only for their See also:guano deposits and See also:shark-fishing grounds, continue the chain several See also:hundred See also:miles farther W.N.W . From See also:Honolulu, the See also:capital, which is about See also:loo m . N.W. of the See also:middle of the inhabited See also:group, the distance to See also:San Francisco is about 2100 m.; to See also:Auckland, New See also:Zealand, about 3810 m.; to See also:Sydney, New See also:South See also:Wales, about 4410 m.; to See also:Yokohama, about 3400 m.; to Hong-See also:Kong, about 4920 m.; to See also:Manila, about 4890 rn . The See also:total See also:area of the inhabited islands is 6651 sq. m., distributed asfollows: See also:Hawaii, 4210; Maui, 728; Oahu, about 600; Kauai, 547; Molokai, 261; Lanai, 139; Niihau, 97; Kahoolawe, 69 . All the islands are of volcanic origin, and have been built up by the eruptive See also:process from a See also:base about 15,000 ft. below the See also:sea to a maximum height (Mauna Kea) on the largest See also:island (Hawaii) of 13,823 ft. above the sea; altogether there are See also:forty volcanic peaks . See also:Evidence of slight upheaval is occasionally afforded by an elevated See also:coral-See also:reef along the See also:shore, and evidence of the :ubsidence of the S. portion of Oahu for several hundred feet has been discovered by artesian borings through coral-See also:rock . In some instances, notably the high and nearly See also:vertical See also:wall along the N. shore of the E. See also:half of Molokai, there is evidence of a fracture followed by the sub-mergence of a portion of a See also:volcano . With the exception of the coral and a small amount of calcareous See also:sandstone, the rocks are entirely volcanic and range from See also:basalt to See also:trachyte, but are mainly basalt . Cinder cones and tuf a cones abound, but one of the most distinguishing features of the Hawaiian volcanoes is the See also:great number of craters of the engulfment type, i.e. See also:pit-craters which enlarge slowly by the breaking off and falling in of their walls, and See also:discharge vast See also:lava-flows with comparatively little violence . The See also:age of the several inhabited islands, or at least the See also:time since the last eruptions on them, decreases from W. to E., and on the most easterly (Hawaii) volcanic forces are still in operation . That those to the westward have See also:long been inactive is shown by the destruction of craters by denudation, by deep ravines, valleys and tall cliffs eroded on the See also:mountain sides, especially on the windward See also:side, by the See also:depth of See also:soil formed from the disintegrated rocks, and by the amount as well as variety of See also:vegetable See also:life .
Hawaii Island, from which the group and later the Territory was named, has the shape of a See also:rude triangle with sides of 90 m., 75 M. and 65 m
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Its See also:coast, unlike that of the other islands of the See also:archipelago, has few coral reefs
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Its See also:surface consists mainly of the See also:gentle slopes of five volcanic mountains which have encroached much upon one another by their eruptions
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Mauna Loa (" Great Mountain "), on the S., is by far the largest volcano in the See also:world; from a base measuring at sea-level about 75 in. from N. to S. and 50 M. from E. to W., it rises gradually to a height of 13,675 ft
.
On its E.S.E. side, at an See also:elevation of 4000 ft. above the sea (300 ft. above the adjoining See also:plain on the W.) is Kilauea, from whose lava-flows the island has been extended to See also:form its S.E. See also:angle
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To the N.N.E. of Mauna Loa, and blending with it in an intervening See also:plateau, is Mauna Kea (" See also:
Enclosed by a circular wall from 200 to 700 ft. in height is a See also:black and slightly undulating plain having an area of 4.14 sq. m., and within this plain is a pit, Halemaumau, of varying area (about 2000 ft. in See also:diameter in 1905), now full of boiling lava, now empty to a depth of perhaps moo ft
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When most active, Halemaumau affords a See also:grand spectacle, especially at See also:night: across the crust run glowing cracks, the crust is then broken into cakes, the cakes plunge beneath, lakes of liquid lava are formed, over whose surface See also:play See also:fire-fountains to to 50 ft. in height, the surface again solidifies and the process is repeated.' According to an See also:account of the natives, a violent eruption of Kilauea occurred in 1789, or about that time, and deposits of volcanic See also:sand, large stones, sponge-like See also:scoria (See also:pumice) and ashes for miles around are evidence of such an eruption
.
Since the Rev
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See also: - H Nako/es Pt . Neahote Pt. t HAWAII K,..a: Xt,0Pt - Result . Bas Kea/WO.aP i K uhaSk~s v . Rauteodl Pt n oopalor Mottos .. CS on world in 1823, the eruptions have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of lava through a subterranean passage into the sea, In the eruptions of 1823, 1832, 1840 and 1868 the See also:floor of the crater See also:rose on the See also:eve of an eruption and then sank, sometimes hundreds of feet, with the discharge of lava; but since 1868 (in 1879, 1886, 1891, 1894 and 1907; and once, before 1868, in 1855) this See also:action has been confined to Halemaumau and such other pits as at the time existed . \lokuaweoweo, on the See also:flat See also:top of Mauna Loa, is a pit crater with a floor 3.7 sq. m. in area and sunk 500–600 ft. within walls that are almost vertical and that measure 9.47 M. in circumference . Formerly, on the eve of a great eruption of Mauna Loa, this crater often spouted forth great columns of See also:flame and emitted clouds of vapour, but in modern times this action has usually been followed by a fracture of the mountain side from the summit down to a point loon ft. or more below where the lava was discharged in great streams, the action at the summit diminishing or wholly ceasing when this discharge began . The first recorded eruption of Mauna Loa was in 1832; since then there have been eruptions in 1851, 1852, 1855, 1859, 1868, 188o–1881, 1887, 1896, 1899 and 1907 . The eruptions of 1868, 1887 and 1907 were attended by earthquakes; in 1868 huge sea waves, 40 ft. in height, were raised, and, as they See also:broke on the S. shore, they destroyed the villages of Punaluu, Ninole, Kawaa and Honuapo . But the eruptions of Mauna Loa have consisted mainly in the quiet discharge of enormous flows of lava: in 18J9 the lava-stream, which began to run on the 23rd of See also:January, flowed N.W., reached the sea, 33 M. distant, eight days later, and continued to flow into it until the 25th of See also:November; and the See also:average length of the flows from seven other eruptions is nearly 14 M . The surface of the upper slopes of Mauna Loa is almost wholly of two widely different kinds of barren lava-flows, called by the Hawaiians the pahoehoe and the aa . The pahoehoe has a smooth but billowy or hummocky surface, and is marked by lines which show that it cooled as it flowed . The aa is lava broken into fragments having See also:sharp and jagged edges . As the same stream sometimes changes abruptly from one See also:kind to the other, the two kinds must be due to different conditions affecting the flow, and among the conditions which may cause a stream to break up into the aa have been mentioned the greater depth of the stream, a sluggish current, impediments in its course just as it is granulating, and, what is more probable, subterranean moisture which causes it to cool from below upward instead of from above downward as in the pahoehoe . The natives are in the See also:habit of making holes in the aa, and planting in them See also:banana shoots or sweet-See also:potato cuttings, and though the holes are simply filled with stones or See also:fern leaves, theplants grow and in due time are productive . Another curious feature of Mauna Loa, and to some extent of other Hawaiian volcanoes, is the great number of caves, some of them as much as 6o to 8o ft. in height and several miles in length; they were produced by the See also:escape of lava over which a crust had formed . In the midst of barren wastes to the S.E. and S.W. of Kilauea are small channels with See also:steam cracks, along which appears the only vegetation of the region . Maui, lying 26 m . N.W. of Hawaii, is composed of two mountains connected by an See also:isthmus, Wailuku, 7 or 8 m. long, about 6 m. across, and about 16o ft. above the sea in its highest See also:part . Mauna Haleakala, on the E. See also:peninsula, has a height of 10,032 ft., and forms a great See also:dome-like See also:mass, with a circumference at the base of 90 M. and See also:regular slopes of only 8° or 9° . It has numerous cinder cones on its S.W. slope, is well wooded on the N. and E. slopes, and has on its summit an See also:extinct pit-crater which is one of the largest in the world . This crater is 7.48 m. long, 2.37 m. wide, and covers 19 sq. m.; the See also:circuit of its walls, which are composed of a hard See also:grey clinkstone much fissured, is 20 M.; its greatest depth is 2720 ft . At opposite ends are breaks in the walls a mile or more in width—one about woo ft., the other at least 3000 ft. in depth—through which poured the lava of probably the last great eruption . From the floor of the crater rise sixteen well-preserved cinder-cones, which range from more than 400 ft. to 900 ft. in height . Along the N. base of the mountain are numerous ravines (several hundred feet deep), to the bottom of which small streams of See also:water fall in long cascades, but elsewhere on the eastern mountain there is little erosion or other See also:mark of age . That the mountainous mass of western Maui is much older is shown by the destruction of its crater, by its sharp ridges and by deeply eroded gorges or valleys . Its highest See also:peak, Puu Kukui, rises 5788 ft. above the sea, and directly under this is the See also:head of Iao Valley, 5 m. long and 2 m. wide, which has been cut in the mountain to a depth of 4000 ft . This and the smaller valleys are noted for the beauty of their tropical scenery . Kahoolawe is a small island 6 m . S.W. of Maui . It is 14 m. long by 6 m. wide . Its mountains, which rise to a height of 1472 ft., are rugged and nearly destitute of verdure, but the intervening valleys afford pasturage for See also:sheep . Lanai is another small island, 7 m . W. of Maui, about 18 m. long and 12 m. wide . It has a mountain range which rises to a maximum height, S.E. of its centre, of about 3480 ft . The N.E. slope is cut by deep gorges, and at the bottom of one of these, which is 2000 ft. deep, is the only water-See also:supply on the island .
On the S. side is a See also:rolling table-land affording considerable pasturage for sheep, but over the whole N.W. portion of the island the See also:trade winds, See also:driving through the channel between Maui and Molokai, sweep the rocks See also:bare
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Kahoolawe and Lanai are both privately owned
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Molokai, 8 m
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N.W. of Maui, extends 40 M. from E. to W. and has an average width of nearly 7 m
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From the S.W. extremity of the island rises the backbone of a See also:ridge which extends E .N.E. about to m., where it culminates in the See also:round-topped See also: N.W. of Molokai, has an irregular quadrangular form. it is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by two roughly parallel ranges of hill separated by a plain that is 20 M. long and in some parts 9 to 10 M. wide . The highest point in the island is Mauna Kaala, 4030 ft., in the Waianae or W. range; but the Koolau or E. range is much longer than the other, and its ridge is very much broken; on the land side there are many ravines formed by lateral spurs, but to the sea for 30 M. it presents a nearly vertical wall without a break . The valleys are remarkable for beautiful scenery,—peaks, cliffs, lateral ravines, cascades and tropical vegetation . There are few craters on the loftier heights, but on the coasts there are several See also:groups of small cones with craters, some of lava, others of tufa . The greater part of the coast is surrounded by a coral reef, often half a mile wide; in several localities an old reef upheaved, sometimes too ft. high, forms part of the land . Kauai, 63 in . W.N.W. of Oahu, has an irregularly circular form with a maximum diameter of about 25 M . On the N.W. is a precipice 2000 ft. or more in height and above this is a mountain plain, but elsewhere around the island is a shore plain, from which rises See also:Mount Waialeale to a height of 5250 ft . The peaks of the mountain are irregular, abrupt and broken; its sides are deeply furrowed by gorges and ravines; the shore plain is broken by ridges and by broad and deep valleys; no other island of the group is so well watered on all sides by large mountain streams; and it is called " See also:garden isle." Niihau, the most See also:westerly of the inhabited islands, is 18 m . W. by S. of Kauai . It is 16 m.long and 6 m. wide . The western two-thirds consists of a low plain, composed of an uplifted coral reef and See also:matter washed down from the mountains; but on the E. side the island rises precipitously from the sea and attains a maximum height of 1304 ft. at Paniau .
There are large See also:salt lagoons on the southern coast
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See also:Climate.—The climate is cooler than that of other regions in the same See also:latitude, and is very healthy
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The See also:sky is usually cloudless or only partly cloudy
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The N.E. trades See also:blow with periodic See also:variations from See also: The number of species is greatest on the older islands, particularly Kauai and Oaha, and the total number for the group has been constantly increasing, some being introduced, others possibly being produced by the varying See also:climatic conditions from those already existing . Among the peculiar dicotyledonous plants there is not a single annual, and by far the greater number are perennial and woody . Hawaiian forests are distinctly tropical, and are composed for the most part of trees below the See also:medium height . They are most See also:common between elevations of 2000 and 8000 ft.; there are only a few species below 2000 ft., and above 800o ft. the growth is stunted . The destruction of considerable portions of the forests by See also:cattle, goats, See also:insects, fire and cutting has been followed by reforesting, the planting of hitherto barren tracts, the passage of severe See also:forest fire See also:laws, and the See also:establishment of forest reserves, of which the area in 1909 was 545,746 acres, of which 357,180 were See also:government land . In regions of heavy rainfall the ol;ia-lchua (Metrosideros pblymorpha), a See also:tree growing from 30 to 100 ft. in height, is predominant, and on account of the dense undergrowth chiefly of ferns and climbing vines, forms the most impenetrable of the forests; its hard See also:wood is used chiefly for See also:fuel . The koa (See also:Acacia koa), from the wood of which the natives used to make the bodies of their canoes, and the only tree of the islands that furnishes much valuable See also:lumber (a hard See also:cabinet wood marketed as " Hawaiian See also:mahogany "), forms extensive forests on Hawaii and Maui between elevations of 2000 and 4000 ft . The mamane (Sophora chrysophylla), which furnishes the best posts, grows principally on the high slopes of Mauna Kea and Hualalai . Posts and railway ties are also made from ohia-ha (Eugenia sandwicensis) . In many districts between elevations of 2000 and 6000 ft., where there is only a moderate amount of moisture, occur mixed forests of koa, koaia (Acacia See also:koala), kopiko (Straussia oncocarpa and S. hawaiiensis), kolea (Myrsine kauaiensis and M. lanaiensis), naio or See also:bastard See also:sandalwood (Myoporumsandwicense) and pua (Olea sa.ndwicensis); of these the koaia furnishes a hard wood suitable for the manufacture of See also:furniture, and out of it the natives formerly made spears and See also:fancy paddles . The wood of the naio when dry has a fragrance resembling that of sandalwood, and is used for torches in fishing . The kukui (See also:Aleurites triloba) and the algaroba (Prosopis juliflora) are the principal species of forest trees that occur below elevations of 2000 ft . The kukui grows along streams and gulches; from its nuts, which are very oily, the natives used to make candles, and it is still frequently called the candlenut tree . On the leeward side, from near the sea level to elevations of 1500 ft., and on ground that was formerly barren, the algaroba tree has formed dense forests since its introduction in 1837 . Forests of See also:iron-wood and See also:blue See also:gum have also been planted . Sandalwood (Santalunt See also:album or freycinetianum) was once abundant on rugged and rather inaccessible heights, but so great a demand arose for it in See also:China,' where it was used for See also:incense and for the manufacture of fancy articles, that the supply was nearly exhausted between 1802 and 1836; since then some See also:young trees have sprung up, but the number is relatively small . Other peculiar trees prized for their wood are: the kauila (Alphitonia ponderosa), used for making spears, mallets and other tools; the kela (Mezoneuron kauaiense), the hard wood of which resembles See also:ebony; the halapepe (See also:Dracaena aurea), out of the soft wood of which the natives carved many o1 their idols; and the wiliwili (Erythrina monosperma), the wood of which is as See also:light as See also:cork and is used for outriggers . In 1909, on six large See also:rubber plantations, mostly on the windward side of the island of Maui, there were planted 444,450 See also:ceara trees, 66,700 hevea trees, and 60o castilloa trees . About the only indigenous See also:fruit-bearing plants are the Chilean See also:strawberry (Fragaria chilensis) and the ohelo See also:berry (Vaccinium reticulation), both of which grow at high elevations on Hawaii and Maui . The ohelo berry is famous in See also:song and See also:story, and formerly served as a propitiatory offering to Pele . The number of fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants that have been introduced and are successfully cultivated or grow See also:wild is much greater; among them are the See also:mango, See also:orange, banana, pineapple, coconut, See also:palm, See also:grape, fig, strawberry, See also:litchi (Nephelium litchi)--the favourite fruit of the See also:Chinese—avocado or See also:alligator See also:pear (Persea gratissima), Sapodilla pear (Ach-See also:ras sapota), See also:loquat or mespilus See also:plum (Eriobotrya japonica), Cape See also:gooseberry (Physalis peruviana), See also:tamarind (Tamarindus indica), papaw (Carica papaya), resembling in See also:appearance the cantaloupe, See also:granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis) and See also:guava (Psidiumguajava) . Most of the native See also:grasses are too coarse for grazing, and some of The Chinese name for the Hawaiian Islands means " Sandalwood Islands." them, particularly the hilo grass (Paspalum conjugation), which forms a dense See also:mat over the ground, prevent the spread of forests . The pill grass (Heteropogon contortus) is also noxious, for its awns get badly entangled in the See also:wool of sheep . The native manienie (Stenotaphrum americanum) and kukai (Panicum pruriens), however, are relished by stock and are found on all the inhabited islands; the Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), a See also:June grass (Poa annua), and See also:Guinea grass (Panicum jumentorum) have also been successfully introduced . The Paspalum orbiculare is the large swamp grass with which the natives covered their houses . On the island of Niihau is a See also:fine grass (Cyperus laevigatus), out of which the beautiful Niihau mats were formerly made; it is used in making See also:Panama hats . Mats were also made of the leaves of the See also:hala tree (Pandanus odoratissimus) . The wauke plant (Broussonetia papyrifera), and to a less extent the mamake (Pipiurus albidus) and Boehmeria stipularis, furnished the bark out of which the famous kapa See also:cloth was made, while the olopa (Cheirodendron gaudichaudii) and the koolea (Myrsine lessertiana) furnished the dyes with which it was coloured . From several species of Cibotium is obtained a glossy yellowish wool, used for making pillows and mattresses . Ferns, of which there are about 130 species varying from a few inches to 30 ft. in height, form a luxuriant undergrowth in the ohia-lehua and the koa forests, and the islands are noted for the profusion and beautiful See also:colours of their flowering plants . Kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, See also:var., esculenta), which furnishes the principal See also:food of the natives, and See also:sugar See also:cane (Saccharum officinarum), the cultivation of which has become the See also:chief See also:industry of the islands, were introduced before the See also:discovery of the group by See also:Captain See also:Cook in 1778 . Sisal See also:hemp has been introduced, and there is a large See also:plantation of it W. of Honolulu . Over seventy varieties of seaweeds, growing in the fresh-water pools and in the See also:waters near the coast, are used by the natives as food . These limus, as they are called by the Kanakas, are washed, salted, broken and eaten as a relish or as a flavouring for See also:fish or other See also:meat . The culture of such See also:algae may prove of economic importance; gelatine, See also:glue and agar-agar would be valuable by-products . See also:Fauna.—A day-flying See also:bat, whales and dolphins are about the only indigenous mammals; hogs, See also:dogs and rats had been introduced before Cook's discovery . Fish in an interesting variety of colours and shapes abound in the sea and in artificial ponds along the coasts.' There are some fine species of birds, and the native avifauna is so distinctive that See also:Wallace argued from it that the Hawaiian Archipelago had long been separated from any other land . There were native names for 89 varieties . The most typical See also:family is the Drepanidae, so named for the stout sickle-shaped See also:beak with which the birds See also:extract insects from heavy-barked trees; Gadow considers the family American in its origin, and thinks that the Moho,' a family of See also:honey-suckers, were later comers and from See also:Australia . The mamo (Drepanis Pacifica) has large See also:golden feathers on its back; it is now very rare, and is seldom found except on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, about 4000 ft. above the sea . The smaller yellow feathers, once used for the See also:war cloaks of the native chiefs, were furnished by the oo (Moho nobilis) and the as (Moho braccatus), now found only occasionally in the valleys of Kauai near Hanalei, on the N. side of the island; See also:scarlet feathers for similar mantles were taken from the iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), a black-bodied, scarlet-winged song-bird, which feeds on See also:nectar and on insects found in the bark of the koa and ohia trees, and from the Fringilla coccinea . In the old times birds were protected by the native belief that divine messages were conveyed by bird cries, and by royal See also:edict forbidding the killing of species furnishing the material for See also:feather cloaks, contributions towards which were long almost the only taxes paid . Thus the downfall of the See also:monarchy and of the See also:ancient cults have been nearly fatal to some of the more beautiful birds; feather ornaments, formerly worn only by nobles, came to be a common decoration; and many species (for example the Hawaiian gallinule, Gallinula sandwicensis, which, because of its See also:crimson frontal See also:plate and See also:bill, was said by the natives to have played the part of See also:Prometheus, burning its head with fire stolen from the gods and bestowed on mortals) have been nearly destroyed by the mongoose, or have been driven from their See also:lowland homes to the mountains, such being the See also:fate of the mamo, mentioned above, and of the See also:Sandwich Island See also:goose (Bernicla sandwicensis), which is here a remarkable example of See also:adaptation, as its See also:present See also:habitat is quite arid . This goose has been introduced successfully into See also:Europe . A bird called moho, but actually of a different family, was the Pennula ecaudata or millsi, which had hardly any tail, and had wings so degenerate that it was commonly thought wingless . The See also:turnstone (Strepsilas inlerpres) arrives in the islands in See also:August after breeding in See also:Alaska . There are no parrots . The only See also:reptiles are three species of skinks and four of the See also:gecko; the islands are famed for their freedom from ' Partly described by T . S . Streets, Contributions to the Natural See also:History of the Hawaiian and Fanning Islands, Bulletin 7 of U.S . See also:National Museum (See also:Washington, 1877) . Several new species are described in U.S . See also:Bureau of See also:Fisheries Document, No . 623 (Washing-ton, 1907), s So See also:Lesson called the family from the native name in 1831; See also:Cabanis (1847) suggested Acrulocercus.See also:snakes . Land-snails, mostly Achatinellidae, are remarkably frequent and diverse; over 300 varieties exist . Insects are numerous, and of about 500 species of See also:beetle some 8o% are not known to exist elsewhere; cockroaches and See also:green locusts are pests, as are, also, mosquitoes,' wasps, scorpions, centipedes and white ants, which have all been introduced from elsewhere . Soil.—The soil of the Territory is almost wholly a decomposition of lava, and in See also:general differs much from the soils of the United States, particularly in the large amount of See also:nitrogen (often more than 1.25% in cane and See also:coffee soil, and occasionally 2.2 %) and iron, and in the high degree of acidity . High up on the windward side of a mountain it is thin, light red or yellow, and of inferior quality . Low down on the leeward side it is dark red and fertile, but still too pervious to retain moisture well . In the older valleys on the islands of Kauai, Oahu and Maui, as well as on the lowland plain of Molokai, the soii is deeper and usually, too, the moisture is retained by a heavy See also:clay . In some places along the coast there is a narrow See also:strip of decomposed coral See also:limestone; often, too, a coral reef has served to catch the sediment washed down the mountain side until a deep sedimentary soil has been deposited . On the still See also:lower levels the soil is deepest and most productive . See also:Agriculture.—The See also:tenure by which lands were held before 1838 was strictly feudal, resembling that of See also:Germany in the i ith century, and lands were sometimes enfeoffed to the seventh degree . But in the " Great See also:Division " which took See also:place in 1848 and forms the See also:foundation of present land titles, about 984,000 acres, nearly one-See also:fourth of the inhabited area, were set apart for the See also:crown, about 1,495,000 acres for the government, and about 1,619,000 acres for the several chiefs; and the common See also:people received See also:fee-See also:simple titles' for their See also:house lots and the pieces of land which they cultivated for themselves, about 28,600 acres, almost entirely in isolated patches of irregular shape hemmed in by the holdings of the crown, the government or the great chiefs . Generally the chiefs ran into See also:debt; many died without heirs; and their lands passed largely into the hands of foreigners . At the abolition of the monarchy in 1893, the crown domains were declared to be public lands, and, with the other government lands, were by the terms of See also:annexation turned over to the United States in 1898 . They had been offered for See also:sale or See also:lease in accordance with land acts (of 1884 and 1895—the latter corresponding generally to the land laws of New Zealand) designed to promote division into small farms and their immediate improvement . In 1909 the area of the public land was about 1,700,000 acres . In 1900 there were in the Territory 2273 farms, of which 1209 contained less than to acres, 785 contained between io and too acres, and 116 contained 1000 acres or more . The natives seldom cultivate more than half an See also:acre apiece, and the Portuguese settlers usually only 25 or 30 acres at most . Of the total area of the Territory only 86,854 acres, or 2.77%, were under cultivation in 1900, and of this 65,687 acres, or 75.6%, were divided into 170 farms and planted to sugar-cane . In 1909 it was estimated that 213,000 acres (about half of which was irrigated) were planted to sugar, one half being cropped each year . The average yield per acre of cane-sugar is the greatest in the world, 30 to 40 tons of cane being an average per acre, and as much as io; tons of sugar having been produced from a single acre under See also:irrigation . The cultivation of the cane was greatly encouraged by the See also:Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, which established practically See also:free trade between the islands and the United States, and since 1879 it has been widely extended by means of irrigation, the water being obtained both by pumping from numerous artesian See also:wells and by conducting surface water through canals and ditches . The sugar farms are mostly on the islands of Hawaii, Oahu, Maui and Kauai, at the bases of mountains; those on the leeward side have the better soil, but require much more irrigating . The product increased from 26,072,429 lb in 1876 to 259,789 462 lb in 1890, 542,098,500 lb in 1899 and about i,o6o,000,000 lb (valued at more than $40,000,000) in 1909 . Nearly all of it is exported to the United States . See also:Rice was the second product in importance until competition with See also:Japan, See also:Louisiana and See also:Texas made the See also:crop a poor investment; improved culture and machinery may restore rice culture to its former importance . It is grown almost wholly by See also:Japanese and Chinese on small low farms along the coasts, mostly on the islands of Kauai and Oahu . In 1899 the product amounted to 33,442,400 lb; in 1907 about 12,000 acres were planted, and the crop was estimated to be See also:worth $2,500,000 . Coffee of See also:good quality is grown at elevations ranging between woo to 3000 ft. above the sea; the Hawaiian product is called Kona coffee—from Kona, a See also:district of the S. side of Hawaii island, where much of it is grown . In 1909 about 4500 acres were in coffee, the value of the crop was $350,000; and 1,763,119 lb of coffee, valued at $21I,535, were exported from Hawaii to the mainland of the United States . A few bananas and (especially from Oahu) pineapples of fine quality are exported; since 1901 the See also:canning of ' The entomological See also:department of the Hawaii Experiment Station undertakes " See also:mosquito See also:control," and in 1905–1906 imported top-minnows (Poeciliidae) to destroy mosquito larvae . 4 These and other See also:title-holders received corresponding rights to the use of irrigation ditches, and to fish in certain sea areas adjacent to their holdings .
ineapples has been successfully carried on, and in the year ending of domestic merchandise from the United States to Hawaii was $15,357,907, and the value of shipments of domestic merchandise from Hawaii to the United States was $31,984,433, of which $30,111,524 was the value of See also: The small islands of Lanai, Niihau and Kahoolawe are devoted chiefly to the raising of sheep and cattle—Niihau is one large privately owned sheep-See also:ranch . There are large cattle-ranches on the islands supplying nearly all the meat for domestic consumption, and cattle-raising is second in importance to the sugar industry . It was estimated in 1908 that there were about 130,500 cattle and about 99,500 sheep on the islands . The " native " cattle, descended from those See also:left on the islands by See also:early navigators, are being improved by breeding with imported See also:Hereford, Shorthorn, See also:Angus and See also:Holstein bulls, the Here-fords being the best for the purpose . In the fiscal year 1908, 359,413 Ib of wool (valued at $58,133) and 928,599 lb of raw hides (valued at $87,599) were shipped from the Territory to the United States . Minerals.—The islands have large (unworked) supplies of pumice, sandstone, See also:sulphur, See also:gypsum, See also:alum and See also:mineral-paint See also:ochres, and some salt. See also:kaolin and sal-ammoniac, but otherwise they are without mineral See also:wealth other than lava rocks for See also:building purposes . Manufactures--The manufactures are chiefly sugar, fertilizers, and such products of the foundry and See also:machine See also:shop as are required for the machinery of the sugar factories . Most of the manufacturing See also:industries, indeed, are maintained for supplying the local See also:market, there being only three important exceptions—the manufacture of sugar, the cleaning of coffee and the cleaning and polishing of rice . The manufacture of sugar, which began between 183o and 184o, has long been much the most important of the manufacturing industries: thus in 1900 the value of the sugar See also:production was $19,254,773, and the total value of all manufactures, including See also:custom work and repairing, was only $24.992,068 . Next to sugar, fertilizers were the most important manufactured product, their value being $1,150,625; the products of the establishments for the polishing and cleaning cif rice were valued at $664,300 . Of the total product in 1900, only 18.5 00 (by value) is to be credited to the See also:city of Honolulu . The growth of manufacturing is much hampered by the lack of labour .
Excellent water See also:power is utilized on the island of Kauai in an electric plant
.
Communications.—There are good See also:wagon roads on the islands, some of them macadamized, built of the hard blue lava rock
.
Hawaii had in 1909 about 200 M. of railway, of which the principal See also:line is that of the Oahu Railway & Land See also:Company (about 89 m.), extending from Honolulu W. and N. along the coast to Kahuku about one-half the distance around Oahu; another line from Kahuku See also: Of the total for 1900 there were 61,111 Japanese, 25,767 Chinese and 233 negroes; of the same total there were 90,780 foreign-See also:born, of whom 56,234 were natives of Japan, and 6512 were natives of See also:Portugal . There were in all in 1900, 106,369 See also:males (69.1-%; a preponderance due to the large number of Mongolian labourers, whose wives are left in Asia) and only 47,632 See also:females . About three-fifths of the Hawaiians and nearly all of American, See also:British or North See also:European descent are Protestants . Most of the Portuguese and about one-third of the native Hawaiians are See also:Roman Catholics . The See also:Mormons claim more than 4000 adherents, whose principal settlement is at Laie, on the north-east shore of Oahu; the first Mormon missionaries came to the islands in 185o . The population of 1910 was distributed among the several islands as follows: Oahu, 82,028; Hawaii, 55,382; Kauai and Niihau, 23,952; Kalawao, 785; and Maui, Lanai, Kahoolawe and Molokai, 29,762 . The population of Honolulu district, the entire See also:urban population of the Territory, was 22,907 in 189o, 39,306 in Igoe., and 52,183 in 1910 . The aboriginal Hawaiians (sometimes called Kanakas, from a Hawaiian word See also:kanaka, meaning " See also:man ") belong to the Malayo-Polynesian See also:race; they probably settled in Hawaii in the loth century, having formerly lived in Nafive popula- See also:Samoa, and possibly before that in See also:Tahiti and the tlon . See also:Marquesas . Their reddish-brown skin has been com- pared in See also:hue to tarnished See also:copper . Their hair is dark brown or black, straight, wavy or See also:curly; the See also:beard is thin, the face broad, the See also:profile not prominent, the eyes large and expressive, the See also:nose somewhat flattened, the lips thick, the See also:teeth excellent in shape and of a pearly whiteness . The See also:skull is sub-See also:brachycephalic in type, with an See also:index of 82.6 from living " specimens " and 79 from a large collection of skulls; it is never prognathous . Most of the people are of moderate stature, but the chiefs and the See also:women of their families have been remarkable for their height, and 400 pounds was formerly not an unusual See also:weight for one of this class . This See also:corpulence was due not alone to over-feeding but to an almost purely vegetable See also:diet; stoutness was a part of the ideal of feminine beauty . The superiority in physique of the nobles to the common people may have been due in part to a See also:system of See also:massage, the lomi-lomi; it is certainly contrary to the belief in the See also:bad effects of inbreeding—among the upper classes See also:marriage was almost entirely between near relatives . The Rev . William Ellis, an early English missionary, described the natives as follows: " The inhabitants of these islands are, considered physically, amongst the finest races in the Pacific, bearing the strongest resemblance to the New Zealanders in stature, and in their well-See also:developed See also:muscular limbs . The See also:tattooing of their bodies is less See also:artistic than that of the New Zealanders, and much more limited than among some of the other islanders . They are also more See also:hardy and industrious than those living nearer the See also:equator . This in all See also:probability arises from their salubrious climate, and the See also:comparative sterility of their soil rendering them dependent upon the cultivation of the ground for the See also:yam, the arum, and the sweet potato, their chief articles of food . Though, like all undisciplined races, the Sandwich Islanders [Hawaiians] have proved deficient in See also:firm and steady perseverance, they See also:manifest considerable intellectual capability . Their moral See also:character, when first visited by Europeans, was not See also:superior to that of other islanders; and excepting when improved and preserved by the See also:influence of See also:Christianity, it has suffered much from the vices of intemperance and licentiousness introduced by foreigners . See also:Polygamy prevailed among the chiefs and rulers, and women were subject to all the humiliations of the tabu system, which subjected them to many privations, and kept them socially in a See also:condition of inferiority to the other See also:sex . See also:Infanticide was practised to some extent, the See also:children destroyed being chiefly females .
Though less superstitious than the Tahitians, the See also:idolatry of the .Sandwich Islanders was equally barbarous and sanguinary, as, in addition to the chief See also:objects of See also:worship included in the See also:mythology of the other islands, the supernatural beings supposed to reside in the volcanoes and See also:direct the action of subterranean fires rendered the gods objects of peculiar terror
.
Human sacrifices were slain on several occasions, and vast offerings presented to the See also:spirits supposed to preside over the volcanoes, especially during the periods of actual eruptions
.
The requisitions of their idolatry were severe and its See also:rites cruel and bloody
.
See also:Grotesque and repulsive wooden figures, animals and the bones of chiefs were the objects of worship
.
Human sacrifices were offered whenever a See also:temple was to be dedicated, or a chief was sick, or a war was to be under-taken; and these occasions were frequent
.
The apprehensions of the people with regard to a future See also:state were undefined, but fearful
.
The lower orders expected to be slowly devoured by evil spirits, or to dwell with the gods in burning mountains
.
The several trades, such as that of fisherman, the tiller of the ground, and the builder of canoes and houses, had each their pre-siding deities
.
See also:Household gods were also kept, which the natives worshipped in their habitations
.
One merciful See also:provision, however, had existed from time immemorial, and that was [the puuhonuas] sacred inclosures, places of See also:refuge, into which those who fled in time of war, or from any violent pursuer, might enter and be safe
.
To violate their sanctity was one of the greatest crimes of which a man could be guilty." The native See also:religion was an admixture of idolatry and See also:hero-worship, of some ethical but little moral force
.
The See also: The mythic and religious legends of the people were preserved in chants, handed down from See also:generation to generation; and in like poetic form was kept the knowledge of the people of See also:botany, See also:medicine and other sciences . Name-songs, written at the See also:birth of a chief, gave his See also:genealogy and the deeds of his ancestors; dirges and love-songs were common . These were without See also:rhyme or See also:rhythm, but had See also:alliteration and a See also:parallelism resembling See also:Hebrew See also:poetry . Drums, See also:gourd and See also:bamboo flutes,and a kind of See also:guitar, were known before Cook's day . When the islands first became known to Europeans, the Hawaiian family was in a See also:stage including both See also:polyandry and polygyny, and, according to See also:Morgan, older than either: two or more b others, with their wives, or two or more sisters with their husbands, cohabited with seeming promiscuity . This system called punalua (a word which in the modern See also:vernacular means merely " dear friend ") was first brought to the See also:attention of ethnologists in 1871 by See also:Lewis H . Morgan (who was incorrect in many of his premises) and was. made the basis of his second stage, the punaluan, in the See also:evolution of the family . These conditions did not last long after the coming of the missionaries . Descent was more commonly traced through the See also:female line . As regard See also:cannibalism, it appears that the See also:heart and See also:liver of the human victims offered in the temples were eaten as a religious rite, and that the same parts of any prominent See also:warrior slain in See also:battle were devoured by the See also:victor chiefs, who believed that they would thereby inherit the valour of the dead man . Under See also:taboo as See also:late as 1819 women were to be put to death if they See also:ate bananas, See also:cocoa-nuts, pork, turtles or certain fish . In the days of idolatry the only See also:dress worn by the men was a narrow strip of cloth See also:wound around the loins and passed between the legs .
Women wore a short See also:petticoat made of kapa cloth (already referred to), which reached from the See also:waist to the See also:knee
.
But nowthe common class of men See also:wear a See also:shirt and See also:trousers; the better class are attired in the European See also:fashion
.
The women are clad in the holoka, a loose white or coloured garment with sleeves, reaching from the See also:neck to the feet
.
A coloured handkerchief is See also:twisted around the head or a See also:straw See also:hat is worn
.
Both sexes delight in adorning themselves with garlands (leis) of See also:flowers and necklaces of coloured seeds
.
The Hawaiians are a good-tempered, light-hearted and See also:pleasure-loving race
.
They have many See also:games and See also:sports, including See also:boxing, See also:wrestling (both in and out of water), hill-sliding, See also:spear-throwing, and a See also:game of See also:bowls played with See also: 
Even at the time when they were first known to Europeans, they had stone and lava hatchets, shark's-tooth knives, hard-wood spades, kapa cloth or See also:paper, mats, fans, fish-hooks and nets, See also:woven baskets, &c., and they had introduced a rough sort of irrigation of the inland See also:country with long canals from See also:highlands to plains . They derived their sustenance chiefly from pork and fish (both fresh and dried), from seaweed (limu), and from the kalo (Colocasia antiquorum, var. esculenta), the banana, sweet potato, yam, See also:bread-fruit and cocoa-See also:nut . From the See also:root of the kalo is made the national dish called poi; after having been baked and well beaten on a board with a stone pestle it is made into a See also:paste with water and then allowed to ferment for a few days, when it is ready to be eaten . One of the table delicacies of former days was a particular breed of See also:dog which was fed exclusively on poi before it was killed, cooked and served . Like other South Sea Islanders they made an intoxicating drink, awa or See also:kava, from the roots of the 117acropiper latifolium or See also:Piper methysticum; in early times this could be drunk only by nobles and priests . The native dwellings are constructed of wood, or occasionally are huts thatched with grass at the sides and top . What little cooking is undertaken among the poorer natives is usually done outside . The See also:oven consists of a hole in the ground in which a fire is lighted and stones made hot; and the fire having been removed, the food is wrapped up in leaves and placed in the hole beside the hot stones and covered up until ready; or else, as is now more common, the cooking is done in an old kerosene-oil can over a fire . The Hawaiian See also:language is a member of the widely-diffused Malayo-Polynesian group and closely resembles the See also:dialect of the Marquesas; Hawaiians and New Zealanders, although occupying the most remote regions north and south at which the race has been found, can understand each other without much difficulty . Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to prove the language See also:Aryan in its origin . It is soft and harmonious, being highly vocalic in structure . Every syllable is open, ending in a vowel See also:sound, and short sentences may be constructed wholly of vocalic sounds . The only consonants are k, 1, m, n and p, which with the gently aspirated h, the five vowels, and the vocalic w, make up all the letters in use . The letters r and t have been discarded in favour of 1 and k, as expressing more accurately the native See also:pronunciation, so that, for example, taro, the former name of the Colocasia plant, is now kale . The language was not reduced to a written form until after the arrival of the missionaries . A Hawaiian spelling See also:book was printed in 1822; in 1834 two See also:newspapers were founded; and in 183o the first See also:translation of the See also:Bible was published . In spite of moral and material progress--indeed largely because of changes in their food, clothing, dwellings and of other " advantages " of See also:civilization—the race is probably dying out . Captain Cook estimated the number of natives at 400,000, probably an over-estimate; in 1823 the American missionaries estimated their number at 142,000; the See also:census of 1832 showed the population to be 130,313; the census of 1878 proved that the number of natives was no more than 44,088 . In 1890 they numbered 34,436; in 'coo, 29,834, a decrease of 4602 or 13.3% within the decade . To account for this it is said that the See also:blood of the race has become poisoned by the introduction of foreign diseases . The women are much less numerous than the men; and the married ones have few children at the most; two out of three have none . Moreover, the mothers appear to have little maternal See also:instinct and neglect their offspring . It is, however, thought by some that these causes are now diminishing in force, and that the " fittest " of the race may survive . The part-Hawaiians, the offspring of intermarriage between Hawaiian women and men of other races, increased from 3420 in 1878 to 6186 in 1890 and 7835 in 1900 .
The pressing demand for labour created by the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 with the United States led to great changes in the population
of the Hawaiian Islands
.
It became the policy of the Immigra- government to assist immigrants from different countries
.
L1on
.
In 1877 arrangements were made for the importation of Portuguese families from the See also:Azores and See also:Madeira, and during the next ten years about 7000 of these people were brought to the islands; in 1906-19o7 there was a second See also:immigration from the Azores and Madeira of 1325 people
.
In 1900 the total number of Portuguese in the islands, including those born there, was not far from 16,000, about 2400 of whom were employed in sugar plantations
.
They have shown themselves to be industrious, thrifty and law-abiding
.
In 1907 2201 Spanish immigrants from the sugar district about See also:Malaga arrived in Hawaii, and about the same number of Portuguese immigrated in the same year
.
The Board of Immigration, using funds contributed by planters, was very active in its efforts to encourage the immigration of suitable labourers, but the general immigration law of 1907 prohibited the securing of such immigration through contributions from corporations
.
Persistent efforts have also been made to introduce Polynesian islanders, as being of a cognate race with the Hawaiians, but the results have been wholly unsatisfactory
.
About 2000, mainly from the See also: About 750 of them were naturalized under the monarchy . The first importation of Chinese labourers was in 1852 . In 1878 the number of Chinese had risen to 5916 . During the next few years there was such a steady influx of Chinese free immigrants that in the See also:spring of 1881 the Hawaiian government sent a despatch to the See also:governor of Hong Kong to stop this invasion . Again, in See also:April 1883, it was suddenly renewed, and within twenty days five steamers arrived from Hong Kong bringing 2253 Chinese passengers, followed the next See also:month by lino more, with the See also:news that several thousand more were ready to embark . Accordingly, the Hawaiian government sent another despatch to the governor of Hong Kong, refusing to permit any further immigration of male Chinese from that See also:port . Various regulations restricting Chinese immigration were enacted from time to time, until in 1886 the landing of any Chinese passenger without a See also:passport was prohibited . The number of Chinese in the islands had then risen to 21,000 . The consent of the Japanese government to the immigration of its subjects to Hawaii was obtained with difficulty in 1884, and in 1886 a labour convention was ratified . Subsequently the increase of the Japanese See also:element in the population was rapid . It rose from 116 in 1884 to 12,360 in 1890 and 24,400 in 1896 . Most of these were recruited from the lowest classes in Japan . Unlike the Chinese, they show no inclination to intermarry with the Hawaiians . The effect of making Hawaii a Territory of the United States was to put an end to all assisted immigration, of whatever race, and to exclude all Chinese labourers . No Chinese labourer is allowed to enter any other Territory of the See also:Union from Hawaii; and the act of See also:Congress of the 26th of February 1885, " to prohibit the importation and See also:migration of foreigners and aliens under See also:contract or agreement to perform labour in the United States, its Territories and the District of See also:Columbia," and the amending and supplementary acts, are extended to it . But in the treaty of 1894 between the United States and Japan there is nothing to limit the free immigration of Japanese; and several companies have been formed to promote it . T h e system of contract labour, which was abolished by the act of Congress in 1900, and under which labourers had been restrained from leaving their work before the end of the contract See also:term, concerned few labourers except the Japanese . Various methods of co-operation or profit-sharing are in successful operation on some plantations . An interesting sociological problem is raised by the presence of the large See also:Asiatic element in the population . The Japanese and Koreans, and in less measure the Chinese, act as domestic servants, work under white contractors on irrigating ditches and reservoirs, do most of the plantation labour and compete successfully with bites and native islanders in all See also:save skilled urban occupations, ;.has See also:printing and the manufacture. of machinery . The " Yellow89 Peril " is considered less dangerous in Hawaii than formerly, although it was used as a See also:political cry in the See also:campaign for American annexation . No success met the apparently well-meaning efforts of the Central Japanese See also:League which was organized in November and December 1903 to promote the observance of law and See also:order by the Japanese in the islands, who assumed a too See also:independent attitude and felt themselves free from governmental control whether Japanese or American; indeed, after the League had been in operation for. a year or more, it almost seemed that it contributed to See also:industrial disorders among the Japanese . At about the same time Japanese immigration to Hawaii See also:fell off upon the opening of new See also:fields for colonization by the Russo-Japanese War, and Korean immigration was promoted by employers on the islands . From the first of January 1903 to the 30th of June 1905 Japanese immigrants numbered 18,027; Koreans X388 (four Koreans to every ten Japanese); but in the last twelve months of this same See also:period there were 4733 Koreans to 5941 Japanese (eight Koreans to every ten Japanese) . Another fact which is possibly contributing to the See also:solution of the problem is that the Japanese are leaving the islands in large See also:numbers as compared with the Koreans . The Japanese leaving Hawaii between the 14th of June 1900 and the 31st of December 1905 numbered 42,313, 0 4284 more than the number of Japanese immigrants arriving during the same period . The corresponding figures for Koreans during the same period are as follows: number leaving between the 14th of June 1900 and the 31st of December 1905, 721, or 6673 less than the Korean immigrants for the same period . The See also:acceleration of the departure of the Japanese is shown by the fact that in the eighteen months (July 1904 to January 1906) occurred 19,114 of the 42,313 departures in the sixty-six months from July 1900 to January 1906.' After 1906, owing to restrictions by the Japanese government, immigration to Hawaii greatly de-creased . At the same time the number of departures was decreasing rapidly . The See also:change in the character of the immigration of Japanese is shown by the fact that in the fiscal year 1906-1907 the ratio of female immigrants to males was as I to 8, in the fiscal year 1907-1908 it was as I to 2, and in the latter year, of 4593 births in the Territory, 2445 were Japanese . See also:Administration.—The Hawaiian Islands are governed under an Act of Congress, signed by the See also:president on the 30th of April 1900, which first organized them as a Territory of the United States . The legislature, which meets biennially at Honolulu, consists of a See also:Senate of 15 members holding See also:office for four years, and a House of Representatives of 30 members holding office for two years . In order to See also:vote for Representatives or Senators, the elector must be a male See also:citizen of the United States who has attained the age of twenty-one years, has lived in the Territory not less than one year preceding, and is able to speak, read and write the English or Hawaiian language . No See also:person is allowed to vote by See also:reason of being in or attached to the See also:army or See also:navy . The executive power is vested in a governor, appointed by the president and holding office for four years . He must not be less than See also:thirty-five years of age and must be a citizen of the Territory .
The secretary of the Territory is appointed in like manner for a term of the same length
.
The governor appoints, by and with the consent of the Senate of the Territory, an See also:attorney-general, treasurer, See also:commissioner of public lands, commissioner of agriculture and forestry, See also:superintendent of public See also:works, superintendent of public instruction, commissioners of public instruction, auditor and See also:deputy-auditor, surveyor, high See also:sheriff, members of the board of See also:health, board of See also:prison inspectors, board of See also:registration, inspectors of See also:election, &c
.
All such See also:officers are appointed for four years except the commissioners of public instruction and the members of the said
' Large numbers of Japanese immigrants have used the Hawaiian Islands merely as a means of gaining See also:admission at the mainland ports of the United States
.
For, as the Japanese government would issue only a limited number of passports to the mainland but would quite readily See also: The act of 1900 provides for the election of a delegate to Congress, and prescribes that the delegate shall have the qualifications necessary for membership in the Hawaiian Senate, and shall be elected by voters qualified to vote for members of the House of Representatives of Hawaii . As usual, the delegate has a right to take part in the debates in the national House of Representatives, but may not vote . Charities.—The principal public charity of the Territory is the leper See also:asylum on a peninsula almost to sq. m. in area on the N. side of the island of Molokai . A steep precipice forms a natural wall between it and the See also:rest of the island . The place became an asylum for lepers and the caring for them began to be a charity under government See also:charge in 1866; but conditions here were at first unspeakably unhygienic, their improvement being largely due to See also:Father See also:Damien, who devoted himself to this work in 1873 . The patients are almost exclusively native Hawaiians, and their number is slowly but steadily decreasing; in 1908 they numbered 791, and there were at Molokai 46 non-leprous helpers and 27 officers and assistants, including the Roman See also:Catholic brothers and sisters in charge of the homes . In 1905 the United States government appropriated $1oo,00o for a See also:hospital station and laboratory " for the study of the methods of transmission, cause and treatment of leprosy," and $50,000 a year for their See also:maintenance; the station and laboratory to be established when the territorial government should have ceded to the United States a See also:tract of 1 sq. m. on the leper See also:reservation . The cession was made soon afterward by the territorial government . In 1907–1908 a See also:home for non-leprous boys of leprous parents was established at Honolulu . Another public charity of Hawaii is the general free dispensary maintained by the territorial government at Honolulu . See also:Education.—Education is universal, compulsory and free . Every See also:child between the ages of six and fifteen must attend either a public school or a duly authorized private school . Consequently the percentage of illiteracy is extremely low . The school system is essentially American in its See also:text-books and in its methods, thanks to the See also:foundations laid by American missionaries . Between 182o and 1824 the missionaries taught about 2000 natives to read . Several important See also:schools were founded before 1840, when the first written laws were published . Among these was a law providing for compulsory education, and decreeing that no illiterate born after the beginning of Liholiho's reign should hold office, and that no illiterate man or woman, born after the same date, could marry . The first Hawaiian See also:minister of public instruction was the Rev . William See also:Richards (1792–1847), who held office from 1843 to 1847, and was followed by See also:Richard See also:Armstrong (1805–1860), an American Presbyterian missionary, the father of General S . C . Armstrong . He laid stress on the importance of See also:manual and industrial training during his term of office (1847–1855), and was succeeded by a board of education (1855–1865), of which he was first president; then an inspector-general of schools was appointed, See also:Judge See also:Abraham Fornander being the first inspector; in 1896 an executive department was created under a minister of public instruction and six See also:corn- 1 These are: the county of Hawaii, consisting of the island of the same name; the county of Maui, including the islands of Maui, Lanai and Kahoolawe, and the greater part of Molokai; the county of Kalawao, being the leper settlement on Molokai; the city and county of Honolulu (created from the former county of Oahu by an act of 1907, which came into effect in 1909), consisting of the island of Oahu and various small islands, of which the only ones of any importance are the Midway Islands, 1232 M. from Honolulu, a Pacific cable relay station and a See also:post of the U.S. navy See also:marines; and the county of Kauai, including Kauai and Niihau islands.missioners; in 1900 a superintendent of public instruction was first appointed . English is by law the medium of instruction in all schools, both public and private, although other See also:languages may be taught in addition . Formal instruction in Hawaiian ceased in 1898 . The schools are in session forty See also:weeks during the year . In 1908 there were 154 public schools with 18,564 pupils (27.06 % of whom were Japanese, 20'89% Hawaiian, 13.54% part Hawaiian, 18.72 % Portuguese and 10.63 % Chinese) and 51 private schools with 4881 pupils . A normal school has been established at Honolulu, with a practice school attached to it . The territorial legislature of 1907 established the See also:College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of the Territory of Hawaii, and also founded a public library . The Honolulu high school does excellent work and has beautiful buildings and grouncs . The Lahainaluna See also:Seminary on See also:west Maui, founded in 1831 as a training school for teachers, furnishes instruction to Hawaiian boys in agriculture, See also:carpentry, printing and See also:mechanical See also:drawing . The boys in the industrial school (1902) at Waialee, on the island of Oahu, are taught useful trades . The teaching of sewing in the public schools has met with great success, and a simple form of the See also:Swedish sloid was introduced into many of the schools in 1894 . See also:Lace work was introduced into the public schools in 1903 . But the best industrial instruction is furnished by the independent schools, among which the Kamehameha schools take the first place . They were founded by Mrs Bernice Pauahi See also:Bishop (1831–1884), the last lineal descendant of Kamehameha I., who left her extensive landed estates in the hands of trustees for their support . They furnish a good manual and technical training to Hawaiian boys and girls, in addition to a See also:primary and See also:grammar school course of study, and exert a strong religious influence .
There are six boarding schools for Hawaiian girls, supported by private resources
.
The most advanced courses of study are offered by Oahu College, which occupies a beautiful site near the See also:beach just E. of Honolulu; it was founded in 1841 as the Punahou School for missionaries' children, and was chartered as Oahu College in 1852
.
It is well equipped with buildings and apparatus, and has an endowment of about $300,000
.
See also:Finance.—The See also:revenue of the Territory for the fiscal year ending the 30th of June 1908 amounted to $2,669,748.32, of which $640,051.42 was the proceeds of the tax on real See also:estate, $635,265.81 was the proceeds of the tax on See also:personal See also:property; and among the larger of the remaining items were the income tax ($266,241.74), waterworks ($141,898.04), public lands (sales, $37,585.75; revenue, $122,541.71) and licences ($206,374.28)
.
On the 30th of June 1908 the bonded debt of the Territory was $3,979,000; there was on See also:hand See also:net See also:cash, without floating debt, $677,648.48
.
History.—The history of the islands before their discovery by Captain See also:
Having encouraged a warlike spirit in his people and having introduced firearms, Kamehameha attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other kingdoms one after another, until (in 1795) he became undisputed See also:master of the whole group
.
He made See also:
William Ellis, the well-known missionary, to visit Honolulu with a number of See also:Christian natives from the Society Islands
.
Finding the language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr Ellis, who had spent several years in the southern islands, was able to assist the American missionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language to a written form
.
In 1825 the ten commandments were recognized by the king as the basis of a See also:code of laws
.
In the years 1830-1845 the educational work of the American missionaries was so successful that hardly a native was unable to read and v.-rite
.
A law prohibiting See also:drunkenness (1835) was followed in 1838 by a licence law and in 1839 by a law prohibiting the importation of spirits and taxing wines fifty cents a See also:gallon; in 184o another prohibitory law was enacted; but licence laws soon made the sale of liquor common
.
Missionary effort was particularly fruitful in Hilo, where See also:Titus Coan (1801-1882), sent out in 1835 by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, worked in repeated revivals, induced most of his See also: On one occasion (July 1839) See also:French officers abrogated the laws (particularly against the importation of liquor), dictated See also:treaties, extorted $20,000 and by force of arms procured privileges for Roman Catholic 1 priests in the country; and at another time (February 1843) a British officer, Captain See also:Paulet of the " Carysfort," went so far as to take See also:possession of Oahu and establish a See also:commission for its government . The act of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as known . These incidents led to a See also:representation on the part of the native See also:sovereign to the governments of Great See also:Britain, See also:France and the United States, and the See also:independence of the islands (recognized by the United States in 1842) was recognized in 1844 by France and Great Britain . In 1844 John Ricord, an American lawyer, became the first minister of foreign affairs . A new constitution came into effect in 1852 . It was the aim of Kamehameha III. and his advisers to combine the native and the foreign elements under one government; to make the king the sovereign not of one race or class, but of all; and to extend equal and impartial laws over all inhabitants of the ' The first Roman Catholic priests came in 1827 and were banished in 1831, but returned in 1837 . An edict of See also:toleration in 1839 shortly preceded the visit of the " Artemise."country . Kamehameha IV. and his queen, Emma, ruled from 1855 to 1863 and were succeeded by his See also:brother, Kamehameha V., who died in 1872, and in whose reign a third (and a reactionary) constitution went into effect in 1864, by mere royal See also:proclamation . Lunalilo, a See also:grandson of Kamehameha I., was king for two years, and in 1874, backed by American influence, Kalakaua was elected his successor, in preference to Queen Emma, a member of the See also:Anglican Church and the See also:candidate of the See also:pro-British party . Kalakaua considered residents of European or American descent as See also:alien invaders, and he aimed to restore largely the ancient system of personal government, under which he should have control of the public See also:treasury . On the 2nd of July 1878, and again on the 14th of August 188o, he dismissed a See also:ministry without assigning any reason, after it had been triumphantly sustained by a test vote of the legislature . On the latter occasion he appointed C .
C
.
Moreno, who had come to Honolulu in the See also:interest of a Chinese steam-ship company, as Premier and minister of foreign affairs
.
This called forth the protest of the representatives of Great Britain, France and the United States, and aroused such opposition on the part of both the foreigners and the better class of natives that the king was obliged, after four days of popular excitement, to remove the See also:obnoxious minister
.
During the king's See also:absence on a tour round the world in 1881, his sister, Mrs See also:Lydia See also:Dominis (b
.
1838), also styled Liliuokalani, acted as See also:regent
.
After his return the contest was renewed between the so-called National party, which favoured See also:absolution, and the Reform party, which sought to establish See also:parliamentary government
.
The king took an active part in the elections, and used his patronage to the utmost to influence legislation
.
For three successive sessions a See also:majority of the legislature was composed of office-holders, dependent on the favour of the executive
.
Among the See also:measures urged by the king and opposed by the Reform party were the project of a ten-million See also:dollar See also:loan, chiefly for military purposes; the removal of the See also:prohibition of the sale of alcoholic liquor to Hawaiians, which was carried in 1882; the licensing of the sale of See also:opium; the chartering of a lottery company; the licensing of kahunas, or medicine men, &c
.
Systematic efforts were made to turn the constitutional question into a race issue, and the party cry was raised of " Hawaii for Hawaiians." Adroit politicians flattered the king's vanity, defended his follies and taught him how to violate the spirit of the constitution while keeping the See also:letter of the law
.
From 1882 till 1887 his See also:prime minister was See also:Walter See also: 12, 1883) . Kalakaua was now no longer satisfied with being merely king of Hawaii, but aspired to what was termed the " Primacy of the Pacific." Accordingly Mr Gibson addressed a protest to the great powers, deprecating any further annexation of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, and claiming for Hawaii the exclusive right " to assist them in improving their political and social condition." In pursuance of this policy, two commissioners were sent to the Gilbert Islands in 1883 to prepare the way for a Hawaiian See also:protectorate . On the 23rd of December 1886 Mi . J . E . See also:Bush was commissioned as minister plenipotentiary to the king of Samoa, the king of See also:Tonga and the other independent chiefs of See also:Polynesia . He arrived in Samoa on the 3rd of January 1887, and remained there six months, during which time he concluded a treaty of See also:alliance with Malietoa, which was ratified by his government . The " Explorer," a steamer of 170 tons, which had been employed in the See also:copra trade, was purchased for $20,000, and refitted as a man-of-war, to form the " See also:nest-See also:egg" of the future Hawaiian navy . She was renamed the " Kaimiloa," and was despatched to Samoa on the 17th of May 1887 to strengthen the hands of the See also:embassy . As R . L . See also:Stevenson wrote: " The history of the ` Kaimiloa ' is a story of debauchery, See also:mutiny and See also:waste of government property." At length the intrigues of the Hawaiian embassy gave umbrage to the See also:German government, and it was deemed prudent to recall it to Honolulu in July 1887 . Meanwhile a reform league had been formed to stop the prevailing See also:misrule and extravagance; it was supported by a volunteer military force, the " Honolulu Rifles." The king carried through the legislature of 1886 a bill for an opium licence, as well as a Loan Act, under which a million dollars were borrowed in See also:London . Under his influence the See also:Hale Naua Society was organized in 1886 for the spread of idolatry and king-worship; and in the same year a " Board of Health" was formed which revived the vicious practices of the kahunas or medicine-men . The king's See also:acceptance of two bribes—one of $75,000 and another of $8o,000 for the See also:assignment of an opium licence—precipitated the revolution of 1887 . An immense mass See also:meeting was held on the 30th of June, which sent a See also:committee to the king with specific demands for See also:radical reforms . Finding himself without support, he yielded without a struggle, dismissed his ministry and signed a constitution on the 7th of July 1887, revising that of 1864, and intended to put an end to personal government and to make the cabinet responsible only to the legislature; this was called the " See also:bayonet constitution," because it was so largely the result of the show of force made by the Honolulu Rifles . By its terms office-holders were made ineligible for seats in the legislature, and no member of the legislature could be appointed to any See also:civil office under the government during the term for which he had been elected . The members of the Upper House, instead of being appointed by the king for life, were henceforth to be elected for terms of six years by See also:electors possessing a moderate property qualification . The See also:remainder of Kalakaua's reign teemed with intrigues and conspiracies to restore autocratic See also:rule . One of these came to a head on the 3oth of July 1889, but this " Wilcox See also:rebellion," led by R . W . Wilcox, a half-breed, educated in See also:Italy, and a friend of the king and of his sister, was promptly suppressed . Seven of the insurgents were killed and a large number wounded . For his health the king visited See also:California in the United States cruiser " See also:Charleston " in November 1890, and died on the loth of January 1891 in San Francisco . On the 29th of January at See also:noon his sister, the regent, took the See also:oath to maintain the constitution of 1887, and was proclaimed queen, under the title of Liliuokalani . The history of her reign shows that it was her See also:constant purpose to restore autocratic government . The legislative session of 1892, during which four changes of ministry took place, was protracted to eight months chiefly by her determination to carry through the opium and lottery bills and to have a pliable cabinet . She had a new constitution See also:drawn up, practically providing for an See also:absolute monarchy, and disfranchising a large class of citizens who had voted since 1887; this constitution (drawn up, so the royal party declared, in reply to a See also:petition signed by thousands of natives) she undertook to force on the country after proroguing the legislature on the 14th of January 1893, but her ministers shrank from the responsibility of so revolutionary an act, and with difficulty prevailed upon her to postpone the See also:execution of her See also:design . An uprising similar to that of 1887 declared the monarchy forfeited by its own act . A third party proposed a regency during the minority of the See also:heir-apparent, Princess Kaiulani, but in her absence this See also:scheme found few supporters . A Committee of Safety was appointed at a public meeting, which formed a provisional government and reorganized the volunteer military companies, which had been disbanded in 1890 . Its leading spirits were the "Sons of Missionaries " (as E . L . See also:Godkin styled them), who were accused of using their knowledge of local affairs and their inherited See also:prestige among the natives for private ends—of See also:founding a " See also:Gospel See also:Republic " which was actually a business enterprise . The provisional government called a mass meeting of citizens, which met on the afternoon of the 6th and ratified its action . The United States steamer " See also:Boston," which had unexpectedly arrived from Hilo on the 14th, landed a small force on the evening of the 16th, at the See also:request of the United States minister, Mr J . L . See also:Stevens, and a committee of residents, to protect the lives and property of American citizens in See also:case of See also:riot or See also:incendiarism . On the 17th the Committee of Safety took possession of the government building, and issued a proclamation declaring a monarchy to be abrogated, and establishing a provisional government, to exist " until terms of union with the United States of America shall have been negotiated and agreed upon." Meanwhile two companies of volunteer troops arrived and occupied the grounds . By the See also:advice of her ministers, and to avoid bloodshed, the queen surrendered under protest, in view of the landing of United States troops, appealing to the government of the United States to reinstate her in authority . A treaty of annexation was negotiated with the United States during the next month, just before the close of President See also:Benjamin See also:Harrison's administration, but it was withdrawn on the 9th of March 1893 by President Harrison's successor, President Cleveland, who then despatched James H . See also:Blount 1837–1903) of See also:Macon, See also:Georgia, as commissioner See also:paramount, to investigate the situation in the Hawaiian Islands . On receiving Blount's See also:report to the effect that the revolution had been accomplished by the aid of the United States minister and by the landing of troops from the " Boston," President Cleveland sent See also:Albert Sydney See also:Willis (1843–1897) of See also:Kentucky to Honolulu with See also:secret instructions as United States minister . Willis with much difficulty and delay obtained the queen's promise to grant an See also:amnesty, and made a formal demand on the provisional government for her reinstatement on the 19th of December 1893 . On the 23rd President Sanford B . See also:Dole sent a reply to Willis, declining to surrender the authority of the provisional government to the deposed queen . The United States Congress declared against any further intervention by adopting on the 31st of May 1894 the Turpie See also:Resolution . On the 3oth of May 1894 a convention was held to See also:frame a constitution for the republic of Hawaii, which was proclaimed on the 4th of July following, with S . B . Dole as its first president . Toward the end of the same year a See also:plot was formed to overthrow the republic and to restore the monarchy . A See also:cargo of arms and See also:ammunition from San Francisco was secretly landed at a point near Honolulu, where a company of native royalists were collected on the 6th of January 1895, intending to See also:capture the government buildings by surprise that night, with the aid of their See also:allies in the city . A premature encounter with a squad of See also:police alarmed the See also:town and broke up their plans . There were several other skirmishes during the following See also:week, resulting in the capture of the leading conspirators, with most of their followers . The ex-queen, on whose premises arms and am-munition and a number of incriminating documents were found, was arrested and was imprisoned for nine months in the former See also:palace . On the 24th of January 1895 she formally renounced all claim to the See also:throne and took the oath of See also:allegiance to the republic . The ex-queen and forty-eight others were granted conditional See also:pardon on the 7th of See also:September, and on the following New Year's Day the remaining prisoners were set at See also:liberty . On the inauguration of President See also:McKinley, in March 1897, negotiations with the United States were resumed, and on the 16th of June a new treaty of annexation was signed at Washington . As its ratification by the Senate had appeared to be uncertain, extreme measures were taken: the See also:Newlands See also:joint resolution, by which the cession was " accepted, ratified and confirmed," was passed by the Senate by a vote of 42 to 21 and by the House of Representatives by a vote of 209 to 91, and was signed by the president on the 7th of July 1898 . The formal See also:transfer of See also:sovereignty took place on the 12th of August 1898, when the See also:flag of the United States (the same flag hauled down by order of Commissioner Blount) was raised over the Executive Building with impressive ceremonies . The sovereigns of the monarchy, the president of the republic and the See also:governors of the Territory up to 1910 were as follows: Sovereigns: Kamehameha I., 1795-1819; Kamehameha II., 1819-1824; Kaahumanu (regent), 1824-1832; Kamehameha III., 1832-1854; Kamehameha IV., 1855-1863; Kamehameha V., 1863-1872; Lunalilo, 1873-1874; Kalakaua, 1874-1891; Liliuokalani, 1891-1893 . President: Sanford B . Dole, 1893-1898 . Governors: S . B . Dole, 1898-1904; See also:George R . See also:Carter, 1904-1907; W . F . Frear, 1907 . AUTHoarr1Es.-Consult the bibliography in Adolf Marcuse, See also:Die hawaiischen Inseln (See also:Berlin, 1894) ; A . P . C . Griffen, See also:List of Books See also:relating to Hawaii (Washington, 1898) ; C . E . Dutton, Hawaiian Volcanoes, in the fourth annual report of the United States See also:Geological Survey (Washington, 1884) ; J . D . See also:Dana, Characteristics of Volcanoes with Contribution of Facts and Principles from the Hawaiian Islands (New See also:York, 1890) ; W . H . See also:Pickering, Lunar and Hawaiian See also:Physical Features compared (1906) ; C . H . See also:Hitchcock, Hawaii and its Volcanoes (Honolulu, 1909) ; Augustin Kramer, Hawaii, Ostmikronesien and Samoa (See also:Stuttgart, 1906); Sharp, Fauna (London, 1899) ; Walter See also:Maxwell, Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1898); W . See also:Hillebrand, Flora of the Hawaiian Islands (London, 1888); G . P .
Wilder, Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands (3 vols., Honolulu, 19o7); H
.
W
.
Henshaw, Birds of the Hawaiian Islands (Washington, 1902) ; A
.
Fornander, Account of the Polynesian Race and the Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I
.
(3 vols., London, 1878–1885) ; W
.
D
.
See also:
See also:Carpenter, America in Hawaii (Boston, 1899); W
.
F
.
Blackman, The Making of Hawaii, a Study in Social Evolution (New York, 1899), with bibliography; T
.
G
.
Thrum, Hawaiian See also:Almanac and Annual (Honolulu) ; Lucien Young, The Real Hawaii (New York, 1899), written by a See also:lieutenant of the " Boston," an ardent defender of Stevens; Liliuokalani, Hawaii's Story (Boston, 1898); C
.
T
.
See also:Rodgers, Education in the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu, 1897); See also:
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