See also:

• HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant)

HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant)  , in See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics, a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TERM

term for all theories of conduct in which the criterion is See also:

• PLEASURE (through Fr. plaisir from Lat. placere, to please; Gr. rlbovii)

pleasure of one See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind or another . Hedonistic theories of conduct have been held from the earliest times, though they have been by no means of the same See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . Moreover, See also:

• HEDONISM (Gr. i bovit, pleasure, from ?) (s, sweet, pleasant)

hedonism has, especially by its critics, been very much misrepresented owing mainly to two See also:

• SIMPLE

simple misconceptions, In the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place hedonism may confine itself to the view that, as a See also:

• MATTER

matter of observed fact, all men do in practice make pleasure the criterion of See also:

• ACTION

action, or it may go further and assert that men ought to seek pleasure as the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole human See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . The former statement takes no view as to whether or not there is any See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute good: it merely denies that men aim at anything more than pleasure . The latter statement admits an ideal, summum bonum—namely, pleasure . The second confusion is the tacit See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption that the pleasure of the hedonist is necessarily or characteristically of a purely See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical kind; this assumption is in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of some hedonistic theories a pure perversion of the facts . Practically all hedonists have argued that what are known as the " See also:

• LOWER

lower " pleasures are not only ephemeral in themselves but also productive of so See also:

• GREAT

great an amount of consequent See also:

• PAIN (from Lat. poena, Gr. robin, penalty, that which must be paid: O. Fr. peine)
• PAIN, BARRY (1867– )

pain that the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man cannot regard them as truly pleasurable; the sane hedonist will, therefore, seek those so-called " higher " pleasures which are at once more lasting and less likely to be discounted by consequent pain . It should be observed, however, that this choice of pleasures by a hedonist is conditioned not by "moral " (absolute) but by prudential (relative) considerations . The earliest and the most extreme type of hedonism is that of the Cyrenaic School as stated by See also:

• ARISTIPPUS (c. 435–356 B.c.)

Aristippus, who argued that the only good for man is the sentient pleasure of the moment . Since (following See also:

• PROTAGORAS (c. 481-411 B.C.)

Protagoras) knowledge is solely of momentary sensations, it is useless to try, as See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates recommended, to make calculations as to future pleasures, and to See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance See also:

• PRESENT

present enjoyment with disagreeable consequences . The true See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• LIFE

life is to See also:

• CROWD, CROUTH, CROWTH

crowd as much enjoyment as possible into every moment . This extreme or " pure " hedonism regarded as a definite philosophic theory practically died with the See also:

• CYRENAICS
• CYRENAICS, MEGARIAN SCHOOL

Cyrenaics, though the same spirit has frequently found expression in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient and See also:

• MODERN

modern, especially poetical, literature .

The confusion already alluded to between " pure " and " rational " hedonism is nowhere more clearly exemplified than in the misconceptions which have arisen as to the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the Epicureans . To identify Epicureanism with Cyrenaicism is a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete misunderstanding . It is true that pleasure is the summum bonum of See also:

• EPICURUS (342–270 B.C.)

Epicurus, but his conception of that pleasure is profoundly modified by the Socratic doctrine of prudence and the See also:

• EUDAEMONISM (from Gr. eb&u,uosla, literally the state of being under the protection of a benign spirit, a " good genius ")

eudaemonism of See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle . The true hedonist will aim at a life of enduring rational happiness; pleasure is the end of life, but true pleasure can be obtained only under the guidance of See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . Self-See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control in the choice of pleasures with a view to reducing pain to a minimum is indispensable . " Of all this, the beginning, and the greatest good, is prudence." The negative See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of Epicurean hedonism was See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed to such an extent by some members of the school (see HEGESIAS) that the ideal life is held to be rather indifference to pain than See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive enjoyment . This pessimistic attitude is far removed from the positive hedonism of Aristippus . Between the hedonism of the ancients and that of modern philosophers there lies a great gulf . Practically speaking ancient hedonism advocated the happiness of the individual: the modern hedonism of See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume, See also:

• BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884)
• BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832)

Bentham and See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

Mill is based on a wider conception of life . The only real happiness is the happiness of the community, or at least of the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority: the criterion is society, not the individual . Thus we pass from Egoistic to Universalistic hedonism, See also:

• UTILITARIANISM (Lat. utilis, useful)

Utilitarianism, Social Ethics, more especially in relation to the still broader theories of See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution . These theories are confronted by the problem of reconciling and adjusting the claims of the individual with those of society .

One of the most important contributions to the discussion is that of See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• LESLIE
• LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722)
• LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794–1859)
• LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855–1892)
• LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832)
• LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882)

Leslie See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen (See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

Science of Ethics), who elaborated a theory of the " social organism " in relation to the individual . The end of the evolution See also:

• PROCESS

process is the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of a " social See also:

• TISSUE (Fr. tissu, tissue, participle of tisser, Lat. texere, to weave)

tissue " which will be " vitally efficient." Instead, therefore, of the criterion of " the greatest happiness of the greatest number," Stephen has that of the " See also:

• HEALTH

health of the organism." Life is not " a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of detached acts, in each of which a man can calculate the sum of happiness or misery attainable by different courses." Each action must be regarded as directly bearing upon the structure of society . A See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of the various hedonistic theories will be found in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article ErHIcs (ad fin.) . See also, beside See also:

• WORKS

works quoted under CYRENAICS, EPICURUS, &c., and the general histories of See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy, J . S . See also:

• MACKENZIE
• MACKENZIE, ALEXANDER (1822-1892)
• MACKENZIE, HENRY (1745-1831)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER (c. 1755-1820)
• MACKENZIE, SIR ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1847— )
• MACKENZIE, SIR GEORGE (1636-1691)
• MACKENZIE, SIR MORELL (1837-1892)
• MACKENZIE, WILLIAM LYON (1795-1861)

Mackenzie, See also:

• MANUAL

Manual of Ethics (3rd ed., 1897); J . H . Muirhead, Elements of Ethics (1892); J . See also:

• WATSON, RICHARD (1737-1816)
• WATSON, THOMAS (c. 1557–1592)
• WATSON, WILLIAM (1858- )
• WATSON, WILLIAM (c. 1559-1603)

Watson, Hedonistic Theories (1895), J . See also:

• MARTINEAU, HARRIET (1802-1876)
• MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900)

Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory (2nd ed., 1886) ; F . H . See also:

• BRADLEY, GEORGE GRANVILLE (1821–1903)
• BRADLEY, JAMES (1693–1762)

Bradley .

Ethical Studies (1876); H . See also:

• SIDGWICK, HENRY (1838-1900)

Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics (6th ed., 1901); Jas . See also:

• SETH
• SETH (Egyptian Set, Sth~~~{{{or Sts)
• SETH (I* according to Dillmann, " setting " or " slip "; Septuagint, Philo and New Testament, fie, but r Chron. i. 1 Ells in A ; Josephus, EfjOor, Vulg. Seth)

Seth, Ethical Principles (3rd ed., 1898); other works quoted under ETHICS .