GEORG WILHELM See also:

• FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836— )

FRIEDRICH See also:

• GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL (1770-1831)

HEGEL (1770-1831)  , See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German philosopher, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• STUTTGART

Stuttgart on the 27th of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1770 . His See also:

• FATHER

father, an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official in the fiscal service of See also:

• WURTTEMBERG

Wurttemberg, is not otherwise known to fame; and of his See also:

• MOTHER

mother we hear only that she had scholarship enough to See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach him the elements of Latin . He had one See also:

• SISTER

sister, Christiana, who died unmarried, and a See also:

• BROTHER

brother See also:

• LUDWIG, KARL FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1816—1895)
• LUDWIG, OTTO (1813-1865)

Ludwig, who served in the See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon . At the See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar school of Stuttgart, where See also:

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1770-1831)

Hegel was educated between the ages of seven and eighteen, he was not remarkable . His See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main productions were a See also:

• DIARY

diary kept at intervals during eighteen months (1785-1787), and See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations of the See also:

• ANTIGONE, (I)

Antigone, the See also:

• MANUAL

Manual of See also:

• EPICTETUS (born c. A.D. 6o)

Epictetus, &c . But the characteristic feature of his studies was the copious extracts which from this See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time onward he unremittingly made and preserved . This collection, alphabetically arranged, comprised annotations on classical authors, passages from See also:

• NEWSPAPERS

newspapers, See also:

• TREATISES

treatises on morals and See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics from the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard See also:

• WORKS

works of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . In this way he absorbed in their integrity the raw materials for elaboration . Yet as See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence that he was not merely receptive we have essays already breathing that admiration of the classical See also:

• WORLD

world which he never lost . His See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief amusement was See also:

• CARDS, PLAYING

cards, and he began the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of taking See also:

• SNUFF (from " to snuff, " i.e. to inhale, to draw in through the nose; cf. Dutch snuf, scent, Ger. Schnupfen, a cold, catarrh, and Eng. " snuffle, " " sniff, " &c.)

snuff . In•the autumn of 1788 he entered at See also:

• TUBINGEN

Tubingen as a student of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology; but he showed no See also:

• INTEREST

interest in theology: his sermons were a failure, and he found more congenial See also:

• READING

reading in the See also:

• CLASSICS

classics, on the advantages of studying which his first See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay was written . After two years he took the degree of Ph.D., and in the autumn of 1793 received his theological certificate, stating him to be of See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good abilities, but of middling See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry and knowledge, and especially deficient in See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy .

As a student, his elderly See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance gained him the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title " Old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man," but he took See also:

• PART

part in the walks, See also:

• BEER

beer-drinking and love-making of his See also:

• FELLOWS, SIR CHARLES (1799-1860)

fellows . He gained most from intellectual intercourse with his contemporaries, the two best known of whom were J . C . F . See also:

• HOLDERLIN, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1770-1843)

Holderlin and See also:

• SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-1854)
• SCHELLING, KAROLINE (1763-1809)

Schelling . With Holderlin Hegel learned to feel for the old Greeks a love which See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew stronger as the semi-Kantianized theology of his teachers more and more failed to interest him . With Schelling like sympathies See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound him . They both protested against the See also:

• POLITICAL

political and ecclesiastical inertia of their native See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state, and adopted the doctrines of freedom and See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story which tells how the two went out one See also:

• MORNING

morning to See also:

• DANCE
• DANCE (Fr. danse; of obscure origin, connected with Old High Ger. danson, to stretch)

dance See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round a See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty in a meadow is an See also:

• ANACHRONISM (from ava, back, and xpovor, time)

anachronism, though in. keeping with their opinions . On leaving See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college, he became a private See also:

• TUTOR (Lat. tutor, guardian, tueri, to watch over, protect)

tutor at See also:

• BERN (Fr. Berne)

Bern and lived in intellectual See also:

• ISOLATION

isolation . He was, however, far from inactive . He compiled a systematic See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the fiscal See also:

• SYSTEM

system of the See also:

• CANTON
• CANTON (borrowed from the Ital. cantone, a corner or angle)
• CANTON (more correctly KWANG-CHOW Fu)
• CANTON, JOHN (1718-1772)

canton Bern, but the main See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in his See also:

• MENTAL

mental growth came from his study of See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity .

Under the impulse given by See also:

• LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729–1781)

Lessing and See also:

• KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804)

Kant he turned to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original records of Christianity, and attempted to construe for himself the real significance of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ . He wrote a See also:

• LIFE

life of Jesus, in which Jesus was simply the son of See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph and See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary . He did not stop to criticize as a philologist, and ignored the miraculous . He asked for the See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret contained in the conduct and sayings of this man which made him the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope of the human See also:

• RACE

race . Jesus appeared as revealing the unity with See also:

• GOD

God in which the Greeks in their best days unwittingly rejoiced, and as lifting the eyes of the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews from a lawgiver who metes out See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment on the transgressor, to the destiny which in the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek conception falls on the just no less than on the unjust . The interest of these ideas is twofold . In Jesus Hegel finds the expression for something higher than See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere morality: he finds a See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble spirit which rises above the contrasts of virtue and See also:

• VICE

vice into the See also:

• CONCRETE
• CONCRETE (Lat. concretes, participle of concrescere, to grow together)

concrete life, seeing the See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite always embracing our finitude, and proclaiming the divine which is in man and cannot be overcome by See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error and evil, unless the man See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close his eyes and ears to the godlike presence within him . In religious life, in See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, he finds the principle which reconciles the opposition of the temporal mind . But, secondly, the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general source of the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine that life is higher than all its incidents is of interest . He does not See also:

• FREE

free himself from the current theology either by rational moralizing like Kant, or by bold speculative See also:

• SYNTHESIS (Gr. a6vOeacs, from avvrcBivac, to put together)

synthesis like See also:

• FICHTE, IMMANUEL HERMANN (originally HARTMANN) VON (1797-1879)
• FICHTE, JOHANN GOTTLIEB (1762-1814)

Fichte and Schelling . He finds his See also:

• PANACEA (Gr. lravaKeia, all-healing, from was, all, and aueioOae, to heal)

panacea in the concrete life of humanity . But although he goes to the Scriptures, and tastes the mystical spirit of the See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, the Christ of his conception has traits that seem borrowed from See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates and from the heroes of See also:

• ATTIC (i.e. "in the Attic style ")

Attic tragedy, who suffer much and yet smile gently on a destiny to which they were reconciled .

Instead of the Hebraic doctrine of a Jesus punished for our sins, we have the Hellenic See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a man who is calmly tranquil in the consciousness of his unity with God . During these years Hegel kept up a slack See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with Schelling and Holderlin . Schelling, already on the way to fame, kept Hegel abreast with German See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation . Both of them were See also:

• INTENT (from Lat. intend ere, to stretch out, extend, particularly in the phrase intendere animum, to turn one's mind to, purpose)

intent on forcing the theologians into the daylight, and grudged them any aid they might expect from Kant's postulation of God and See also:

• IMMORTALITY (Lat. in-, not, mortalis, mortal, from mors, death)

immortality to See also:

• CROWN

crown the edifice of See also:

• ETHICS
• ETHICS, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES

ethics . Meanwhile, Holderlin in See also:

• JENA

Jena had been following Fichte's career with an See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm with which he infected Hegel . It is pleasing to turn from these vehement struggles of thought to a tour which Hegel in See also:

• COMPANY

company with three other tutors made through the Bernese Oberland in See also:

• JULY

July and August 1796 . Of this tour he See also:

• LEFT

left a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute diary . He was delighted with the varied See also:

• PLAY

play of the waterfalls, but no glamour blinded him to the squalor of Swiss See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant life . The glaciers and the rocks called forth no raptures . " The spectacle of these eternally dead masses gave me nothing but the monotonous and at last tedious idea, ` Es ist so.' " Towards the close of his engagement at Bern, Hegel had received hopes from Schelling of a See also:

• POST

post at Jena . Fortunately his friend HOlderlin, now tutor in See also:

• FRANKFORT

Frankfort, secured a similar situation there for Hegel in the See also:

• FAMILY

family of Herr See also:

• GOGOL, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (1809—1852)

Gogol, a See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant (See also:

• JANUARY

January 1797) . The new post gave him more leisure and the society he needed .

About this time he turned to questions of See also:

• ECONOMICS

economics and See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government . He had studied See also:

• GIBBON
• GIBBON, EDWARD (1737–1794)

Gibbon, See also:

• HUME, ALEXANDER (c. 1557-1609)
• HUME, DAVID (1711-1776)
• HUME, JOSEPH (1777-1855)

Hume and See also:

• MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES LOUIS DE SECONDAT, BARON DE LA BREDE ET DE (1689-1755)

Montesquieu in See also:

• SWITZERLAND

Switzerland . We now find him making extracts from the See also:

• ENGLISH

English newspapers on the Poor-See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

Law See also:

• BILL

Bill of 1796; criticising the Prussian See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• LAWS

laws, promulgated about the same time; and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing a commentary on See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• STEUART, SIR JAMES DENHAM, BART

Steuart's Inquiry into the Principles of Political See also:

• ECONOMY

Economy . Here, as in contemporaneous criticisms of Kant's ethical writings, Hegel aims at correcting the abstract discussion of a topic by treating it in its systematic interconnexions . See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church and state, law and morality, See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and See also:

• ART

art are reduced to factors in the totality of human life, from which the specialists had isolated them . But the best evidence of Hegel's See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to contemporary politics is two unpublished essays—one of them written in 1798, " On the See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

Condition of Wurttemberg in See also:

• RECENT

Recent Times, particularly on the Defects in the Magistracy," the other a See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism on the constitution of See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, written, probably, not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of See also:

• LUNEVILLE

Luneville (1801) . Both essays are See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical rather than constructive . In the first Hegel showed how the supineness of the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee of estates in Wurttemberg had favoured the usurpations of the See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior officials in whom the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court had found compliant servants . And though he perceived the advantages of See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change in the constitution of the estates, he still doubted if an improved system could See also:

• WORK

work in the actual conditions of his native See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province . The main feature in the pamphlet is the recognition that a spirit of reform is abroad . If Wurttemberg suffered from a bureaucracy tempered by despotism, the Fatherland in general suffered no less . " Germany," so begins the second of these unpublished papers, " is no longer a state." Referring the collapse of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire to the retention of feudal forms and to the See also:

• ACTION

action of religious animosities, Hegel looked forward to reorganization by a central See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power (See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria) wielding the imperial See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, and by a representative See also:

• BODY

body elected by the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical districts of the empire .

But such an issue, he saw well, could only be the outcome of violence—of " See also:

• BLOOD

blood and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron . " The philosopher did not pose as a See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical statesman . He described the German empire in its nullity as a conception without existence in fact . In such a state of things it was the business of the philosopher to set forth the outlines of the coming See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch, as they were already moulding themselves into shape, amidst what the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• EYE
• EYE (O. Eng. edge, Ger. Auge; derived from an Indo-European root also seen in Lat. oc-ulus, the organ of vision (q.v.)

eye saw only as the disintegration of the old forms of social life . His old interest in the religious question reappears, but in a more philosophical See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . Starting with the contrast between a natural and a See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, he regards a positive religion as one imposed upon the mind from without, not a natural growth crowning the round of human life . A natural religion, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, was not, he thought, the one universal religion of every clime and See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, but rather the spontaneous development of the See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience varying in varying circumstances . A See also:

• PEOPLE

people's religion completes and consecrates their whole activity: in it the people rises above its finite life in limited See also:

• SPHERES, MUSIC OF THE

spheres to an infinite life where it feels itself all at one . Even philosophy with Hegel at this epoch was subordinate to religion; for philosophy must never abandon the finite in the See also:

• SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH

search for the infinite . Soon, however, Hegel adopted a view according to which philosophy is a higher mode of apprehending the infinite than even religion . At Frankfort, meanwhile, the philosophic ideas of Hegel first assumed the proper philosophic form . In a MS. of 102 See also:

• QUARTO

quarto sheets, of which the first three and the seventh are wanting, there is preserved the original See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the Hegelian system, so far as the See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic and See also:

• METAPHYSICS
• METAPHYSICS, or METAPHYSIC (from Gr. /sera, after, d v med, things of nature, lots, i.e. the natural universe)

metaphysics and part of thephilosophy of nature are concerned .

The third part of the system—the ethical theory—seems to have been composed afterwards; it is contained in its first draft in another MS. of 30 sheets . Even these had been preceded by earlier See also:

• PYTHAGOREAN

Pythagorean constructions envisaging the divine life in divine triangles . Circumstances soon put Hegel in the way to See also:

• COMPLETE

complete these outlines . His father died in January 1799; and the slender sum which Hegel received as his See also:

• INHERITANCE

inheritance, 3154 gulden (about £z6o), enabled him to think once more of a studious life . At the close of 1800 we find him asking Schelling for letters of introduction to See also:

• BAMBERG

Bamberg, where with cheap living and good beer he hoped to prepare himself for the intellectual excitement of Jena . The upshot was that Hegel arrived at Jena in January 18or . An end had already come to the brilliant epoch at Jena, when the romantic poets, See also:

• TIECK, JOHANN LUDWIG

Tieck, See also:

• NOVALIS

Novalis and the Schlegels made it the headquarters of their fantastic See also:

• MYSTICISM (from Or. µuety, to shut the eyes; µuorrts, one initiated into the mysteries)

mysticism, and Fichte turned the results of Kant into the banner of revolutionary ideas . Schelling was the main philosophical See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion of the time; and in some quarters Hegel was spoken of as a new See also:

• CHAMPION (Fr. champion, Late Lat. campio from campus; a field or open space, i.e. one " who takes the field " or fights; cf. Ger. Kampf, battle, and Kampfer, fighter)

champion summoned to help him in his struggle with the more prosaic continuators of Kant . Hegel's first performance seemed to justify the rumour . It was an essay on the difference between the philosophic systems of Fichte and Schelling, tending in the main to support the latter . Still more striking was the agreement shown in the Critical See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Philosophy, which Schelling and Hegel wrote conjointly during the years 18oz-1803 . So latent was the difference between them at this epoch that in one or two cases it is not possible to determine by whom the essay was written .

Even at a later period See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign critics like See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

Cousin saw much that was alike in the two doctrines, and did not hesitate to regard Hegel as a See also:

• DISCIPLE

disciple of Schelling . The dissertation by which Hegel qualified for the position of Privatdozent (De orbitis planetarum) was probably chosen under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Schelling's philosophy of nature . It was an unfortunate subject . For while Hegel, depending on a numerical proportion suggested by See also:

• PLATO

Plato, hinted in a single See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence that it might be a See also:

• MISTAKE (i.e. take amiss)

mistake to look for a See also:

• PLANET (Gr. ssXavirrns, a wanderer)

planet between See also:

• MARS
• MARS (MAYORS, MARMAR, MARSPITER GA MASPITER)
• MARS, MLLE [ANNE FRANCOISE HYPPOLYTE BOUTET] (1779-1847)

Mars and See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter, Giuseppe Piazzi (q.v.) had already discovered the first of the asteroids (See also:

• CERES

Ceres) on the 1st of January r8or . Apparently in August, when Hegel qualified, the See also:

• NEWS

news of the See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery had not yet reached him, but critics have made this luckless See also:

• SUGGESTION

suggestion the ground of attack on a priori philosophy . Hegel's lectures, in the See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter of 1801-r8oz, on logic and metaphysics were attended by about eleven students . Later, in 1804, we find him with a class of about See also:

• THIRTY

thirty, lecturing on his whole system; but his See also:

• AVERAGE

average attendance was rather less . Besides philosophy, he once at least lectured on mathematics . As he taught, he was led to modify his original system, and See also:

• NOTICE

notice after notice of his lectures promised a See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-See also:

• BOOK

book of philosophy—which, however, failed to appear . Meanwhile, after the departure of Schelling from Jena in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of 1803, Hegel was left to work out his own views . Besides philosophical studies, where he now added See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle to Plato, he read See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer and the Greek tragedians, made extracts from books, attended lectures on See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

physiology, and dabbled in other sciences . On his own See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation at See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar, he was in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1805 made a See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor extraordinarius, and in July 18o6 See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew his first and only See also:

• STIPEND

stipend—moo thalers .

At Jena, though some of his hearers became attached to him, Hegel was not a popular lecturer any more than K . C . F . See also:

• KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1781—1832)

Krause (q.v.) . The ordinary student found J . F . See also:

• FRIES
• FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794–1878)
• FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825)

Fries (q.v.) more intelligible . _ Of the lectures of that period there still remain considerable notes . The See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language often had a theological tinge (never entirely absent), as when the " idea " was spoken of, or " the See also:

• NIGHT

night of the divine See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery," or the See also:

• DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS

dialectic of the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute called the " course of the divine life . " Still his view was growing clearer, and his difference from Schelling more palpable . Both Schelling and Hegel stand in a relation to art, but while the aesthetic See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of Schelling was found in the contemporary world, where art was a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere and the artist a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate profession in no intimate connexion with the age and nation, the model of Hegel was found rather in those works of national art in which art is not a part but an aspect of the See also:

• COMMON

common life, and the artist is not a mere individual but a concentration of the See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion and power of beauty in the whole community . " Such art," says Hegel, " is the common good and the work of all .

Each See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation hands it on beautified to the next; each has done something to give utterance to the universal thought . Those who are said to have See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius have acquired some special aptitude by which they render the general shapes of the nation their own work, one in one point, another in another . What they produce is not their invention, but the invention of the whole nation; or rather, what they find is that the whole nation has found its true nature . Each, as it were, piles up his See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone . So too does the artist . Somehow he has the good See also:

• FORTUNE, ROBERT (1813-188o)

fortune to come last, and when he places his stone the See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch stands self-supported." Hegel, as we have already seen, was fully aware of the change that was coming over the world . " A new epoch," he says, " has arisen . It seems as if the world-spirit had now succeeded in freeing itself from all foreign See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective existence, and finally apprehending itself as absolute mind." These words come from lectures on the See also:

• HISTORY

history of philosophy, which laid the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation for his Phdnomenologie See also:

• DES

des Geistes (Bamberg, 1807) . On the 14th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1806 Napoleon was at Jena . Hegel, like See also:

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG VON (1749-1832)

Goethe, See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt no patriotic shudder at the national disaster, and in See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia he saw only a corrupt and conceited bureaucracy . Writing to his friend F . J .

Niethammer (1766–1848) on the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day before the See also:

• BATTLE

battle, he speaks with admiration of the " world-soul," the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor, and with See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction of the probable overthrow of the Prussians . The See also:

• SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP

scholar's wish was to see the clouds of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war pass away, and leave thinkers to their peaceful work . His See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts were his main care; and doubtful of the safety of his last despatch to Bamberg, and disturbed by the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French soldiers in his lodgings, he hurried off, with the last pages of the Phdnomenologie, to take See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in the See also:

• PRO

pro-See also:

• RECTOR (Lat. for " ruler," " guide," &c., from regere, " rule ")

rector's See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . Hegel's fortunes were now at the lowest ebb . Without means, and obliged to See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow from Niethammer, he had no further hopes from the impoverished university . He had already tried to get away from Jena . In 1805, when several lecturers left in See also:

• CON

con-sequence of diminished classes, he had written to Johann Heinrich See also:

• VOSS, JOHANN HEINRICH (1751–1826)
• VOSS, RICHARD (1851– )

Voss (q.v.), suggesting that his philosophy might find more congenial See also:

• SOIL

soil in See also:

• HEIDELBERG

Heidelberg; but the application See also:

• BORE

bore no See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit . He was, therefore, glad to become editor of the See also:

• BAMBERGER, LUDWIG (1823-1899)

Bamberger Zeitung (1807–1808) . Of his editorial work there is little to tell; no leading articles appeared in his columns . It was not a suitable vocation, and he gladly accepted the rectorship of the Aegidien-gymnasium in See also:

• NUREMBERG (Ger. Nurnberg)

Nuremberg, a post which he held from See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1808 to August 1816 . See also:

• BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern)

Bavaria at this time was modernizing her institutions . The school system was reorganized by new regulations, in accordance .with which Hegel wrote a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of lessons in the outlines of philosophy—ethical, logical and psychological .

They were published in 184o by See also:

• ROSENKRANZ, JOHANN KARL FRIEDRICH (1805-1879)

Rosenkranz from Hegel's papers . As a teacher and See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master Hegel inspired confidence in his pupils, and maintained discipline without pedantic interference in their associations and See also:

• SPORTS
• SPORTS, THE BOOK OF

sports . On See also:

• PRIZE, or PRIZE OF WAR (Fr. prise, from prendre, to take)

prize-days his addresses summing up the history of the school See also:

• YEAR

year discussed some topic of general interest . Five of these addresses are preserved . The first is an exposition of the advantages of a classical training, when it is not confined to mere grammar . " The perfection and grandeur of the master-works of Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman literature must be the intellectual See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath, the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular See also:

• BAPTISM

baptism, which gives the first and unfading See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone and See also:

• TINCTURE (Fr. teinture, Lat. tinctura, tingere, to dye, stain)

tincture of See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science." In another address, speaking of the introduction of military exercises at school, he says: " These exercises, while not in-tended to withdraw the students from their more immediate See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty, so far as they have any calling to it, still remind them of the possibility that every one, whatever See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank in society he may belong to, may one day have to defend his See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country and his See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king, or help to that end . This duty, which is natural to all, was formerly recognized by every See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, though whole ranks in the state have become strangers to the very idea of it." On the 16th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September 1811 Hegel married See also:

• MARIE

Marie vonTucher (twenty-two years his junior) of Nuremberg . She brought her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband no fortune, but the See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage was entirely happy . The husband kept a careful See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record of income and See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure . His income amounted at Nuremberg to 1500 gulden (£130) and a house; at Heidelberg, as professor, he received about the same sum; at See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin about 3000 thalers (boo) . Two sons were born to them; the See also:

• ELDER (0. Eng. ellarn; Ger. Holunder; Fr. sureau)
• ELDER (Gr. 1rpev(3iTepos)

elder, Karl, became eminent as a historian . The younger, Immanuel, was born on the 24th of September 1816 .

Hegel's letters to his wife, written during his solitary See also:

• HOLIDAY

holiday See also:

• TOURS

tours to See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, the See also:

• NETHERLANDS

Netherlands and See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, breathe of kindly and happy See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection . Hegel the tourist—recalling happy days spent together; confessing that, were it not because of his sense of duty as a traveller, he would rather be at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home, dividing his time between his books and his wife; commenting on the See also:

• SHOP

shop windows at Vienna; describing the See also:

• STRAW

straw hats of the Parisian ladies—is a contrast to the professor of a profound philosophical system . But it shows that the enthusiasm which in his days of courtship moved him to See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse had blossomed into a later age of domestic See also:

• BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833– )

bliss . In 1812 appeared the first two volumes of his Wissenschaft der Logik, and the work was completed by a third in 1816 . This work, in which his system was for the first time presented in what, with a few See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor alterations, was its ultimate shape, found some See also:

• AUDIENCE (from Lat. audire, to hear)

audience in the world . Towards the close of his eighth session three professorships were almost simultaneously put within his reach—at See also:

• ERLANGEN

Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg . The Prussian offer expressed a doubt that his long See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence from university teaching might have made him rusty, so he accepted the post at Heidelberg, whence Fries had just gone to Jena (October 1816) . Only four hearers turned up for one of his courses . Others, however, on the See also:

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA

encyclopaedia of philosophy and the history of philosophy drew classes of twenty to thirty . While he was there Cousin first made his acquaintance, but a more intimate relation See also:

• DATES

dates from Berlin . Among his pupils was See also:

• HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772–1848)
• HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804–1855)

Hermann F . W .

See also:

• HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794–1861)

Hinrichs (q.v.), to whose Religion in its Inward Relation to Science (1822) Hegel contributed an important See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface . The strangest of his hearers was an Esthonian See also:

• BARON
• BARON (1835-1895)
• BARON, MICHEL (1653—1729)

baron, Boris d'Yrkull, who after serving in the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian army came to Heidelberg to hear the See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom of Hegel . But his books and his lectures were alike obscure to the baron, who betook himself by Hegel's See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice to simpler studies before he returned to the Hegelian system . At Heidelberg Hegel was active in a See also:

• LITERARY

literary way also . In 1817 he brought out the Encyklopadie d. philos . Wissenschaften See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Grundrisse (4th ed., Berlin, 1817; new ed., 1870) for use at his lectures . It is the only exposition of the Hegelian system as a whole which we have See also:

• DIRECT

direct from Hegel's own hand . Besides this work he wrote two reviews for the Heidelberg Jahrbiicher—the first on F . H . See also:

• JACOBI, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1743-1819)
• JACOBI, JOHANN GEORG (1740-1814)
• JACOBI, KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851)

Jacobi, the other a political pamphlet which called forth violent criticism . It was entitled a Criticism on the Transactions of the Estates of Wurttemberg in 1815-1816 . On the 15th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1815 King See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick of Wurttemberg, at a See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting of the estates of his See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom, laid before them the draft of a new constitution, in accordance with the resolutions of the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

congress of Vienna .

Though an improvement on the old constitution, it was unacceptable to the estates, jealous of their old privileges and suspicious of the king's intentions . A decided See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)
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