See also:

• ALEXANDRE, NOEL (NATALIS ALEXANDER) (1639-1724)

ALEXANDRE HERCULANO DE CARVALHO E ARAUJO (1810-1877)  , Portuguese historian, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born in See also:

• LISBON (Lisboa)

Lisbon of humble stock, his grandfather having been a foreman stonemason in the royal employ . He received his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early See also:

• EDUCATION

education, comprising Latin, See also:

• LOGIC (Xoy1K7, sc. rixvrt, the art of reasoning)

logic and See also:

• RHETORIC (Gr. psroperctj TEXvq, the art of the orator)

rhetoric, at the Necessidades Monastery, and spent a See also:

• YEAR

year at the Royal Marine See also:

• ACADEMY, GREEK
• ACADEMY, ROYAL

Academy studying See also:

• MATHEMATICS (Gr. /saBnµar1Kil, Sc. vOcvn or E7rlQTt'µn; from p iN.La, "learning" or "science ")

mathematics with the intention of entering on a commercial career . In 1828 See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell under the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• RULE

rule of D . See also:

• MIGUEL, MARIA EVARIST (1802–1866)

Miguel, and Herculano, becoming involved in the unsuccessful military pronunciamento of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1831, had to leave Portugal clandestinely and take See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France . In 1832 he accompanied the Liberal expedition to See also:

• TERCEIRA

Terceira as a volunteer, and was one of D . Pedro's famous See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of 7500 men who landed at the Mindello and occupied See also:

• OPORTO (i.e. o Porto, " the port ")

Oporto . He took See also:

• PART

part in all the actions of the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege, and at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time served as a librarian in the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city archives . He published his first See also:

• VOLUME

volume of verses, A Voz de Propheta, in 1832, and two years later another entitled A Harpa do Crente . Privation had made a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of him, and in these little books he proves himself a poet of deep feeling and consider-able See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of expression . The stirring incidents in the See also:

• POLITICAL

political emancipation of Portugal inspired his muse, and he describes the bitterness of See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile, the adventurous expedition to Terceira, the heroic See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence of Oporto, and the final combats of See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty . In 1837 he founded the See also:

• PANORAMA (Gr. -rap, all, and opa,ua, view)

Panorama in See also:

• IMITATION (Lat. imitatio, from intitari, to imitate)

imitation of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• PENNY (Mid. Eng. peni or peny, from O. Eng. form penig, earlier penning and pending; the word appears in Ger. Pfennig and Du. penning; it has been connected with Du. pand, Ger. Pfand, and Eng. " pawn,". the word meaning a little pledge or token, or with G
• PENNY, GIANFRANCESCO (1488–1528)

Penny See also:

• MAGAZINE

Magazine, and there and in Illustrac¢o he published the See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical tales which were afterwards collected into Lendas e Narratives; in the same year he became royal librarian at the Ajuda See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

Palace, which enabled him to continue his studies of the past . The Panorama had a large circulation and See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, and Herculano's See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical sketches of great men and his articles of See also:

• LITERARY

literary and historical See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism did much to educate the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle class by acquainting them with the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of their nation, and with the progress of knowledge and the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of letters in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign countries .

On entering See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

parliament in 184o he resigned the editorship to devote himself to See also:

• HISTORY

history,-but he still remained its most important contributor . Up to the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of twenty-five Herculano had been a poet, but he then abandoned See also:

• POETRY

poetry to See also:

• GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE

Garrett, and after several essays in that direction he definitely introduced the historical novel into Portugal in 1844 by a See also:

• BOOK

book written in imitation of See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter See also:

• SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. 1550)
• SCOTT, DAVID (18o6-1849)
• SCOTT, MICHAEL (1789-1835)
• SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887)
• SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878)
• SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART
• SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890)
• SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866)

Scott . Eurico treats of the fall of the Visigothic See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy and the beginnings of resistance in the See also:

• ASTURIAS

Asturias which gave The See also:

• DIAGRAM

diagram shows the arrangement and proportions of the See also:

• VILLA

Villa Ercolanese . The dotted lines show the course taken by the excavations, which began at the See also:

• LOWER

lower part of the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan . Plan of Villa Ercolanese, See also:

• HERCULANEUM

Herculaneum I See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

Main Entrance II See also:

• IMP
• IMP (O. Eng. impa, a graft, shoot; the verb impian is cognate with Ger. impfen, to graft, inoculate, and the Fr. enter; the ultimate origin is probably the Gr. 'µ4uety, to implant, cf. Et.A4Uros, engrafted)

imp/nu/um IV See also:

• PRINCIPAL

Principal See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

Hall V See also:

• GARDEN (from O. Fr. garden, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and " yard," comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde and Ger. .garten)

Garden VI See also:

• POND
• POND, JOHN (c. 1767-1836)

Pond See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth to the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian kingdoms of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula, while the See also:

• MONGE, GASPARD (1746-1818)

Monge de Cister, published in 1848, describes the time of See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John I., when the middle class and the municipalities first asserted their power and elected a king in opposition to the See also:

• NOBILITY

nobility . From an See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic standpoint, these stories are rather laboured productions, besides being ultra-romantic in See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone; but it must be remembered that they were written mainly with an educational See also:

• OBJECT

object, and, moreover, they deserve high praise for their See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style . Herculano had greater book learning than Scott, but lacked descriptive See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent and skill in See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue . His See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch is heavy, and these novels show no dramatic power, which accounts for his failure as a playwright, but their influence was as great as their followers were many, and they still find readers . These and See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of two old See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles, the Chronica de D . Sebastiao (1839) and the Annaes del rei D . Joao III (1844), prepared Herculano for his See also:

• LIFE

life's See also:

• WORK

work, and the year 1846 saw the first volume of his History of Portugal from the Beginning of the Monarchy to the end of the Reign of Affonso III., a book written on See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical lines and based on documents . The difficulties he encountered in producing it were very great, for the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations had been See also:

• ILL

ill-prepared by his predecessors, and he was obliged to be See also:

• ARTISAN, or ARTIZAN

artisan and architect at the same time .

He had to collect See also:

• MSS

MSS. from all parts of Portugal, decipher, classify and weigh them before he could begin work, and then he found it necessary to break with precedents and destroy traditions . Serious students in Portugal and abroad welcomed the book as an historical work of the first See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank, for its See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of careful See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, its able marshalling of facts, its learning and its painful accuracy, while the sculptural simplicity of the style and the correctness of the diction have made it a Portuguese classic . The first volume, however, gave rise to a celebrated controversy, because Herculano had reduced the famous See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Ourique, which was supposed to have seen the birth of the Portuguese monarchy, to the dimensions of a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere skirmish, and denied the apparition of See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ to King Affonso, a See also:

• FABLE (Fr. fable, Lat. fabula)

fable first circulated in the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . Herculano was denounced from the See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel)

pulpit and the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press for his lack of patriotism and piety, and after bearing the attack for some time his See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride drove him to reply . In a See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter to the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of Lisbon entitled Eu e o Clero (1850), he denounced the fanaticism and See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy in See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain terms, and this provoked a fierce pamphlet See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war marked by much See also:

• PERSONAL

personal abuse . The See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor of Arabic in Lisbon intervened to sustain the accepted view of the battle, and charged Herculano and his supporter Gayangos with ignorance of the Arab historians and of their See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language . The conduct of the controversy, which lasted some years, did See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit to none of the contending parties, but Herculano's statement of the facts is now universally accepted as correct . The second volume of his history appeared in 1847, the third in 1849 and the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth in 1853 . In his youth, the excesses of See also:

• ABSOLUTISM

absolutism had made Herculano a Liberal, and the attacks on his history turned this man, full of sentiment and deep religious conviction, into an See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-clerical who began to distinguish between political Catholicism and See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity . His History of the Origin and See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

Establishment of the See also:

• INQUISITION, THE (Lat. inquisitio, an inquiry)

Inquisition (1854-1855), See also:

• RELATING

relating the See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years' struggle between King John III. and the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews—he to establish the tribunal and they to prevent him—was compiled, as the See also:

• PREFACE (Med. Lat. prefatia, for classical praefatio, praefari, to speak beforehand)

preface showed, to See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem the Ultramontane reaction, but none the less carried See also:

• WEIGHT

weight because it was a See also:

• RECITAL (from Lat. recitare, to read out, particularly of a public document)

recital of events with little or no comment or evidence of See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion in its author . Next to these two books his study, Do Estado See also:

• DES

des classes servas na Peninsula desde o VII. See also:

• ATE

ate o XII. seculo, is Herculano's most valuable contribution to history . In 1856 he began editing a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of Portugalliae monuments historica, but personal See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences between him and the keeper of the See also:

• ARCHIVE (Lat. archivum, a transliteration of Gr. apxeiov, an official building)

Archive See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, which he was forced to frequent, caused him to interrupt his historical studies, and on the See also:

• DEATH

death of his friend King Pedro V. he See also:

• LEFT

left the Ajuda and retired to a See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house near See also:

• SANTAREM

Santarem .

Disillusioned with men and despairing of the future of his country, he spent the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of his life devoted to agricultural pursuits, and rarely emerged from his retirement; when he did so, it was to fight political and religious reaction .