See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)  , See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek historian, called the See also:

• FATHER

Father of See also:

• HISTORY

History, was See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• HALICARNASSUS (mod. Budrum)

Halicarnassus in See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, then dependent upon the Persians, in or about the See also:

• YEAR

year 484 B.C . See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus was thus born a See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian subject, and such he See also:

• CON

con, tinned until he was See also:

• THIRTY

thirty or five-and-thirty years of See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . At the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of his See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth Halicarnassus was under the See also:

• RULE

rule of a See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

queen See also:

• ARTEMISIA
• ARTEMISIA (159o-1642)

Artemisia (q.v.) . The year of her See also:

• DEATH

death is unknown; but she See also:

• LEFT

left her See also:

• CROWN

crown to her son Pisindelis (born about 498 B.C.), who was succeeded upon the See also:

• THRONE

throne by his son Lygdamis about the time that Herodotus See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew to manhood . The See also:

• FAMILY

family of Herodotus belonged to the upper See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of the citizens . His father was named Lyxes, and his See also:

• MOTHER

mother Rhaeo, or Dryo . He had a See also:

• BROTHER

brother See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore, and an See also:

• UNCLE

uncle or See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin See also:

• PANYASIS (more correctly, PANYASSIS)

Panyasis (q.v.), the epic poet, a personage of so much importance that the See also:

• TYRANT (Gr. r6pavvos, master, ruler)

tyrant Lygdamis, suspecting him of treasonable projects, put him to death . It is probable that Herodotus shared his relative's See also:

• POLITICAL

political opinions, and either was exiled from Halicarnassus or quitted it voluntarily at the time of his See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution . Of the See also:

• EDUCATION

education of Herodotus no more can be said than that it was thoroughly Greek, and embraced no doubt the three subjects essential to a Greek liberal education—See also:

• GRAMMAR (from Lat. grammatica, sc. ars; Gr. ypaµ)

grammar, gymnastic training and See also:

• MUSIC

music . His studies would be regarded as completed when he attained the age of eighteen, and took rank among the See also:

• EPHEBI (Gr. i ri, and On, i.e. " those who have reached puberty ")

ephebi or eirenes of his native See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city . In a See also:

• FREE

free Greek See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state he would at once have begun his duties as a See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

citizen, and found therein sufficient employment for his growing energies . But in a city ruled by a tyrant this outlet was wanting; no political See also:

• LIFE

life worthy of the name existed .

Herodotus may thus have had his thoughts turned to literature as furnishing a not unsatisfactory career, and may well have been encouraged in his choice by the example of Panyasis, who had already gained a reputation by his writings when Herodotus was still an See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant . At any See also:

• RATE

rate it is clear from the extant See also:

• WORK

work of Herodotus that he must have devoted himself See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early to the See also:

• LITERARY

literary life, and commenced that extensive course of See also:

• READING

reading which renders him one of the most instructive as well as one of the most charming of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient writers . The poetical literature of See also:

• GREECE

Greece was already large; the See also:

• PROSE

prose literature was more extensive than is generally supposed; yet Herodotus shows an intimate acquaintance with the whole of it . The Iliad and the Odyssey are as See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to him as See also:

• SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616)

Shakespeare to the educated Englishman . He is acquainted with the poems of the epic See also:

• CYCLE
• CYCLE (Gr. KUK)^os, a circle)

cycle, the Cypria, the See also:

• EPIGONI (" descendants ")

Epigoni, &c . He quotes or other-See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise shows familiarity with the writings of See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod, See also:

• OLEN

Olen, See also:

• MUSAEUS

Musaeus, Bacis, See also:

• LYSISTRATUS

Lysistratus, See also:

• ARCHILOCHUS

Archilochus of See also:

• PAROS, or PARO

Paros, See also:

• ALCAEUS (Ar earos)

Alcaeus, See also:

• SAPPHO (7th–6th centuries B.C.)

Sappho, See also:

• SOLON (7th and 6th century n.c.)

Solon, See also:

• AESOP (Gr. Aivwvros)

Aesop, See also:

• ARISTEAS

Aristeas of Proconnesus, See also:

• SIMONIDES (or SEMONIDES) OF AMORGOS

Simonides of See also:

• CEOS (Gr. Kiws, mod. Zea or Tzia)

Ceos, Phrynichus, See also:

• AESCHYLUS (525–456 B.c.)

Aeschylus and See also:

• PINDAR (Gr. HivSapos, c. 522–443 B.c.)

Pindar . He quotes and criticizes Hecataeus, the best of the prose writers who had preceded him, and makes numerous allusions to other authors of the same class . It must not, however, be supposed that he was at any time a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere student . It is probable that from an early age his inquiring disposition led him to engage in travels, both in Greece and in See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign countries . He traversed Asia Minor and See also:

• EUROPEAN

European Greece probably more than once; he visited all the most important islands of the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

Archipelago—See also:

• RHODES
• RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1853-1902)
• RHODES, JAMES FORD

Rhodes, See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

Cyprus, See also:

• DELOS

Delos, Paros, See also:

• THASOS

Thasos, See also:

• SAMOTHRACE (Turk. Semadrek)

Samothrace, See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, See also:

• SAMOS

Samos, See also:

• CYTHERA (mod. Cerigo, but still officially known as Cythera)

Cythera and See also:

• AEGINA
• AEGINA (EGINA or ENGIA)

Aegina . He undertook the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and perilous See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey from See also:

• SARDIS

Sardis to the Persian See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital See also:

• SUSA (anc. Segusio, q.v.)
• SUSA (Biblical, Shushan)
• SUSA (Fr. Sousse)

Susa, visited See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon, See also:

• COLCHIS

Colchis, and the western shores of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea as far as the See also:

• ESTUARY (from the Lat. aestuarium, a place reached by aestus, the tide)

estuary of the See also:

• DNIEPER

Dnieper; he travelled in See also:

• SCYTHIA (Gr. EKuOia)

Scythia and in See also:

• THRACE

Thrace, visited See also:

• ZANTE (anc. Zacynthus)

Zante and Magna Graecia, explored the antiquities of See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, coasted along the shores of See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, saw See also:

• GAZA (or `AllAH, mod. Ghuzzeh)
• GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475)

Gaza, and made a long stay in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . At the most moderate estimate, his travels covered a space of thirty-one degrees of See also:

• LONGITUDE (from Lat. longitudo, " length ")

longitude, or 1700 See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles, and twenty-four of See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, or nearly the same distance .

At all the more interesting sites he took up his See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode for a time; he examined, he inquired, he made measurements, he accumulated materials . Having in his mind the See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of his See also:

• GREAT

great work, he gave ample time to the elaboration of all its parts„and took care to obtain by See also:

• PERSONAL

personal observation a full knowledge of the various countries . The travels of Herodotus seem to have been chiefly accomplished between his twentieth and his thirty-seventh year (464-447 B.C.) 1 It was probably in his early manhood that as a Persian subject he visited Susa and Babylon, taking See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the Persian See also:

• SYSTEM

system of posts which he describes in his fifth See also:

• BOOK

book . His See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence 2 The date of his travels is difficult to determine . E . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer inclines to put all the longer journeys, except the Scythian, between o and 43o inc . The journey to Susa and Babylon is put by t . F . See also:

• LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (?-1767)
• LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-187o)

Lehmann c . 450 B.C., and by H . See also:

• STEIN, CHARLOTTE VON (1742-1827)
• STEIN, HEINRICH FRIEDRICH KARL, BARON VOM

Stein before 450,in Egypt must, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, have been subsequent to 46o B.c., since he saw the skulls of the Persians slain by Inarus in that year . Skulls are rarely visible on a battlefield for more than two or three seasons after the fight, and we may therefore presume that it was during the reign of Inarus (460-454 B.C.),2 when the Athenians had great authority in Egypt, that he visited the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, making himself known as a learned Greek, and therefore receiving favour and See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention on the See also:

• PART

part of the Egyptians, who were so much beholden to his countrymen (see See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

ATHENS, CIasoN, PERICT.FS) .

On his return from Egypt, as he proceeded along the Syrian See also:

• SHORE

shore, he seems to have landed at Tyre, and from thence to have gone to Thasos . His Scythian travels are thought to have taken See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to 450 B.C . It is a question of some See also:

• INTEREST

interest from what centre or centres these various • expeditions were made . Up to the time of the execution of Panyasis, which is placed by chronologists in or about the year 457 B.C., there is every See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that Herodotus lived at Halicarnassus . His travels in Asia Minor, in European Greece, and among the islands of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean, probably belong to this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, as also his journey to Susa and Babylon . We are told that when he quitted Halicarnassus on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the tyranny of Lygdamis, in or about the year 457 B.C., he took up his abode in Samos . That See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island was an important member of the Athenian confederacy, and in making it his See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home Herodotus would have put himself under the See also:

• PROTECTION

protection of Athens . The fact that Egypt was then largely under Athenian See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence (see See also:

• CIMON [Kiµwp] (c. 507-449)

CIMON, See also:

• PERICLES (49o-429 B.C.)

PERICLES) may have induced him to proceed, in 457 or 456 B.C., to that country . The stories that he had heard in Egypt of See also:

• SESOSTRIS

Sesostris may then have stimulated him to make voyages from Samos to Colchis, Scythia and Thrace . He was thus acquainted with almost all the regions which were to be the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of his projected history . After Herodotus had resided for some seven or eight years in Samos, events occurred in his native city which induced him to return thither . The tyranny of Lygdamis had gone from See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad to worse, and at last he was expelled .

According to Suidas, Herodotus was himself an actor, and indeed the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief actor, in the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion against him; but no other author confirms this statement, which is intrinsically improbable . It is certain, however, that Halicarnassus became henceforward a voluntary member of the Athenian confederacy . Herodotus would now naturally return to his native city, and enter upon the enjoyment of those rights of free citizenship on which every Greek set a high value . He would also, if he had by this time composed his history, or any considerable portion of it, begin to make it known by recitation among his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends . There is reason to believe that these first attempts were not received with much favour, and that it was in chagrin at his failure that he precipitately withdrew from his native See also:

• TOWN

town, and sought a See also:

• REFUGE

refuge in Greece proper (about 447 B.e.).2 We learn that Athens was the place to which he went, and that he appealed from the See also:

• VERDICT (O. Fr. verdit, Lat. vere dictum, truly said, used in Late Latin in one word with its present significance)

verdict of his countrymen to Athenian See also:

• TASTE (from Lat. taxare, to touch sharply; tangere, to touch)

taste and See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment . His work won such approval that in the year 445 B.C., on the proposition of a certain Anytus, he was voted a sum of ten talents (£2400) by See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people . At one of the recitations, it was said, the future historian See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides was See also:

• PRESENT

present with his father, Olorus, and was so moved that he burst into tears, whereupon Herodotus remarked to the father—" Olorus, your son has a natural See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm for letters." 4 Athens was at this time the centre of intellectual life, and could boast an almost unique See also:

• GALAXY

galaxy of See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent—Pericles, Thucydides the son of Melesias, See also:

• ASPASIA

Aspasia, See also:

• ANTIPHON

Antiphon, the musician See also:

• DAMON

Damon, See also:

• PHEIDIAS

Pheidias, See also:

• PROTAGORAS (c. 481-411 B.C.)

Protagoras, See also:

• ZENO

Zeno, See also:

• CRATINUS (c. 520—423 B.C.)

Cratinus, See also:

• CRATES

Crates, See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides and See also:

• SOPHOCLES (495-406 B.c.)

Sophocles . Accepted into this brilliant society, on familiar terms with all probably, as he certainly was with Olorus, 2 Most See also:

• RECENT

recent critics (e.g . Stein, Meyer, Busolt) put the visit to Egypt after the suppression of the revolt under Inarus and Amyrtaeus (i.e. after 449 B.c.), on the strength of See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod . 2 . 30, which implies the restoration of Persian authority . 2 Stein, Meyer, Busolt, and other recent writers attribute his departure from Halicarnassus to political causes, e.g. the ascendancy of the See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Athenian party in the state .

4 This See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story is on See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological grounds rejected by all recent critics . the two countries, but to write the history of a particular See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war—the great Persian war of invasion . His aim was as definite as that of Thucydides, or See also:

• SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1759-18o5)

Schiller, or See also:

• NAPIER
• NAPIER, JOHN (1550-1617)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES (1786-1860)
• NAPIER, SIR CHARLES JAMES (1782-1853)
• NAPIER, SIR WILLIAM FRANCIS PATRICK (1785-1860)

Napier or any other writer who has made his subject a particular war; only he determined to treat it in a certain way . Every partial history requires an " introduction "; Herodotus, untrammelled by examples, resolved to give his history a magnificent introduction . Thucydides is content with a single See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory book, forming little more than one-eighth of his work; Herodotus has six such books, forming two-thirds of the entire See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition . By this arrangement he is enabled to treat his subject in the See also:

• GRAND

grand way, which is so characteristic of him . Making it his See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• OBJECT

object in his " introduction to set before his readers the previous history of the two nations who were the actors in the great war, he is able in tracing their history to bring into his narrative some account of almost all the nations of the known See also:

• WORLD

world, and has See also:

• ROOM

room to expatiate freely upon their See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography, antiquities, See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and customs and the like, thus giving his work a " universal " See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, and securing for it, without trenching upon unity, that variety, richness and fulness which are a See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm of the best histories, and of none more than his . In tracing the growth of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia from a See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty subject See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom to a vast dominant See also:

• EMPIRE

empire, he has occasion to set out the histories of See also:

• LYDIA

Lydia, See also:

• MEDIA

Media, See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, -Scythia, Thrace, and to describe the countries and the peoples inhabiting them, their natural productions, See also:

• CLIMATE

climate, See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical position, monuments, &c.; while, in noting the contemporaneous changes in Greece, he is led to tell of the various migrations of the Greek See also:

• RACE

race, their colonies, See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce, progress in the arts, revolutions, See also:

• INTERNAL

internal struggles, See also:

• WARS

wars with one another, legislation, religious tenets and the like . The greatest variety of episodical See also:

• MATTER

matter is thus introduced; but the propriety of the occasion and the mode of introduction are such that no complaint can be made; the episodes never entangle, encumber or even unpleasantly interrupt the main narrative . It has been questioned, both in ancient and in See also:

• MODERN

modern times, whether the history of Herodotus possesses the essential requisite of trustworthiness . Several ancient writers accuse him of intentional untruthfulness . Moderns generally acquit him of this See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge; but his severer critics still urge that, from the inherent defects of his character, his credulity, his love of effect and his loose and inaccurate habits of thought, he was unfitted for the historian's See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, and has produced a work of but small See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical value .

Perhaps it may be sufficient to remark that the defects in question certainly exist, and detract to some extent from the authority of the work, more especially of those parts of it which See also:

• DEAL

deal with remoter periods, and were taken by Herodotus on See also:

• TRUST

trust from his informants, but that they only slightly affect the portions which treat of later times and See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• SPECIAL

special subject of his history . In See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of this view, it may be noted that the authority of Herodotus for the circumstances of the great Persian war, and for all See also:

• LOCAL

local and other details which come under his immediate See also:

• NOTICE

notice, is accepted by even the most sceptical of modern historians, and forms the basis of their narratives . Among the merits of Herodotus as an historian, the most prominent are the See also:

• DILIGENCE

diligence with which he collected his materials, the candour and impartiality with which he has placed his facts before the reader, the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of party See also:

• BIAS
• BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong)

bias and undue See also:

• NATIONAL

national vanity, and the breadth of his conception of the historian's office . On the other hand, he has no claim to rank as a criiiwl historian; he has no conception of the See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

philosophy of history, no insight into the real causes that underlie political changes, no See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of penetrating below the See also:

• SURFACE

surface, or even of grasping the real interconnexion of the events which he describes . He belongs distinctly to the romantic school; his forte is vivid and picturesque description, the lively presentation of scenes and actions, characters and states of society, not the subtle See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of motives, the power of detecting the undercurrents or the generalizing See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty . But it is as a writer that the merits of Herodotus are most Thucydides and Sophocles, he must have been tempted, like many was, not to give an account of the entire long contest between another foreigner, to make Athens his permanent home . It is to his See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit that he did not yield to this temptation . At Athens he must have been a See also:

• DILETTANTE

dilettante, an idler, without political rights or duties . As such he would have soon ceased to be respected in a society where literature was not recognized as a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate profession, where a See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates served in the See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry, a Sophocles commanded fleets, a Thucydides was See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general of an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, and an Antiphon was for a time at the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the state . Men were not men according to Greek notions unless they were citizens; and Herodotus, aware of this, probably sharing in the feeling, was anxious, having lost his political status at Halicarnassus, to obtain such status elsewhere . At Athens the See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise, jealously guarded at this period, was not to be attained without great expense and difficulty . Accordingly, in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of the following year he sailed from Athens with the colonists who went out to found the See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony of See also:

• THURII, or THURIUM

Thurii (see PERICLES), and became a citizen of the new town .

From this point of his career, when he had reached the age of See also:

• FORTY

forty, we lose sight of him almost wholly . He seems to have made but few journeys, one to See also:

• CROTONA, CROTO

Crotona, one to See also:

• METAPONTUM (Gr. Meraaovrtov, mod. Metaponto)

Metapontum, and one to Athens (about 430 B.c.) being all that his work indicates.' No doubt he was employed mainly, as See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny testifies, in retouching and elaborating his general history . He may also have composed at Thurii that special work on the history of Assyria to which he twice refers in his first book, and which is quoted by See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle . It has been supposed by many that he lived to a great age, and argued that " the never-to-be-mistaken fundamental See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone of his performance is the quiet talkativeness of a highly cultivated, tolerant, intelligent, old See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man " (See also:

• DAHLMANN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1785-186o)

Dahlmann) . But the indications derived from the later touches added to his work, which form the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence on the subject, would rather See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to the conclusion that his life was not very prolonged . There is nothing in the nine books which may not have been written as early as 430 B.C.; there is no See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch which, ,even probably, points to a later date than 424 B.C . As the author was evidently engaged in polishing his work to the last, and even promises touches which he does not give, we may assume that he did not much outlive the date last mentioned, or in other words, that he died at about the age of sixty . The predominant See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice of antiquity tells us that he died at Thurii, where his See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb was shown in later ages . The History.—In estimating the great work of Herodotus, and his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius as its author, it is above all things necessary to conceive aright what that work was intended to be . It has been called " a universal history," " a history of the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians," and " a history of the struggle between Greece and Persia." But these titles are all of them too comprehensive . Herodotus, who omits wholly the histories of See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia, See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage and See also:

• ETRURIA

Etruria, three of the most important among the states existing in his See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, cannot have intended to compose a " universal history," the very See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of which belongs to a later age . He speaks in places as,if his object was to See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record the wars between the Greeks and the barbarians; but as he omits the Trojan war, in which he fully believes, the expedition of the Teucrians and Mysians against Thrace and See also:

• THESSALY

Thessaly, the wars connected with the Ionian colonization of Asia Minor and others, it is evident that he does not really aim at embracing in his narrative all the wars between Greeks and barbarians with which he was acquainted .

Nor does it even seem to have been his object to give an account of the entire struggle between Greece and Persia . That struggle was not terminated by the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Mycale and the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Sestos in 479 B.C . It continued for thirty years longer, to the See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace of See also:

• CALLIAS

Callias (but see CALLIAS and CIMON) . The fact that Herodotus ends his history where he does shows distinctly that his intention 1 See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

Opinion is divided as to this visit to Athens after his See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement at Thurii . Stein, Meyer and Busolt hold that much of his work (especially the later books) was composed at Athens soon after 430 B.C . See further See also:

• WACHSMUTH, CHARLES (1829-1896)

Wachsmuth, Rheinisches Museum, lvi . (1901) 215-218 . Macan, Herodotus VII.-IX . (Introduction, pp. xlv.-lxvi., seeks to prove that the last three books were the first part of, the Histories to be composed . He is followed in this view by See also:

• BURY
• BURY, JOHN BAGNELL (1861- )

Bury . conspicuous . " 0 that I were in a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition," says See also:

• LUCIAN (d. 312)
• LUCIAN [Aowaavos] (c. A.D. 120-180)

Lucian, " to resemble Herodotus, if only in some measure !

I by no means say in all his gifts, but only in some single point; as, for instance, the beauty of his See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, or its See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony, or the natural and See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace of the Ionic See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect, or his fulness of thought, or by whatever name those thousand beauties are called which to the despair of his imitator are See also:

• UNITED

united in him." See also:

• CICERO

Cicero calls his See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style " copious and polished," See also:

• QUINTILIAN [MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS] (C. A.D. 35-95)

Quintilian, " sweet, pure and flowing "; See also:

• LONGINUS, CASSIUS (c. A.D. 213-273)

Longinus says he was " the most Homeric of historians "; See also:

• DIONYSIUS
• DIONYSIUS (c. 432–367 B.C.)

Dionysius, his countryman, prefers him to Thucydides, and regards him as combining in an extraordinary degree the excellences of sublimity, beauty and the true historical method of composition . Modern writers are almost equally complimentary . " The style of Herodotus," says one, " is universally allowed to be remarkable for its harmony and sweetness." " The charm of his style," argues another, " has so dazzled men as to make them See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind to his defects." Various att plpts have been made to analyse the charm which is so universally See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt; but it may be doubted whether any of them are very successful . All, however, seem to agree that among the qualities for which the style of Herodotus is to be admired are simplicity, freshness, naturalness and harmony of See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm . See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

Master of a form of language peculiarly sweet and euphonical, and possessed of a delicate See also:

• EAR (common Teut.; O.E. are, Ger. Ohr, Du. oor, akin to Lat. auris, Gr. ovs)

ear which instinctively suggested the most musical arrangement possible, he gives his sentences, without See also:

• ART

art or effort, the most agreeable flow, is never abrupt, never too diffuse, much less prolix or wearisome, and being himself See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, fresh, naif (if we may use the word), honest and somewhat See also:

• QUAINT (O. Fr. cointe, from Lat. cognitus, known, probably influenced by association with Lat. corn plus, neat)

quaint, he delights us by combining with this See also:

• MELODY (Gr. ,ueXw3ia, a choral song, from name, tune, and gi6i, song)

melody of See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound simple, clear and fresh thoughts, perspicuously expressed, often accompanied by happy turns of phrase, and always manifestly the spontaneous growth of his own fresh and unsophisticated mind . Reminding us in some respects of the quaint See also:

• MEDIEVAL

medieval writers, See also:

• FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?)

Froissart and Philippe de See also:

• COMINES, or COMMINES (Flem. Komen)

Comines, he greatly excels them, at once in the beauty of his language and the art with which he has combined his heterogeneous materials into a single perfect harmonious whole . See also GREECE, See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section History, " Authorities." The best of the older See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of the Greek See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text are the following:—Herodoti historiae, ed . See also:

• SCHWEIGHAUSER, JOHANN (1742–1830)

Schweighauser (5 vols., See also:

• STRASSBURG, or STRASBURG (French Strasbourg)

Strassburg, 1816) ; Herodoti Halicarnassei historiarum libri IX . (ed . See also:

• GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855)

Gaisford, See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, 184o) ; Herodotus, with a Commentary, by J . W . See also:

• BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS (18o8–1885)

Blakesley (2 vols., See also:

• LONDON

London, 1854) ; Herodoti musae (ed .

See also:

• BAHR

Bahr, 4 vols., See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1856-'861, 2nd ed.) ; and Herodoti historiae (ed . Abicht, Leipzig, 1869) . The most recent editions of the text, or of portions of it, with and without commentaries are the following H . Stein, Herodoti Historiae (ed . See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major, 2 vols., Heflin, 1869–,871, with apparatus criticus; still the best edition of the text); H . Kellenberg, Historiarum libri IX . (2 vols., Leipzig, 1887); See also:

• VAN

van Herwerden, Ieropia& (See also:

• LEIDEN

Leiden, 1885); H . Stein, Herodotus, erklart (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1856–1861, and several editions since; the best See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short commentary and introduction) ; A . H . See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce, The Ancient Empires of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, Herodotus I . III., with introductions and appendices (1883; an See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to prove the unveracity of Herodotus, especially in regard to the extent. of his travels, which has found little support amongst more recent See also:

• ENGLISH

English or See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German writers) ; R . W .

Macan, Herodotus IV.-VI . (2 vols .. 1895) and Herodotus VII . IX . (2 vols., 1908), with exhaustive introduction, appendices and notes; the only scientific edition of these books in English; E . See also:

• ABBOTT
• ABBOTT, EMMA (1849-1891)
• ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879)
• ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877)
• ABBOTT, LYMAN (1835- )

Abbott, Herodotus V. and VI . (Oxford, 1893) A . See also:

• WIEDEMANN, GUSTAV HEINRICH (1826-1899)

Wiedemann, Herodots zweites See also:

• BUCH
• BUCH, CHRISTIAN LEOPOLD VON, BARON (1774-1853)

Buch snit sachlichen Bemerkungen (Leipzig, 1890; the best and fullest commentary on book ii.) . Among See also:

• WORKS

works of value illustrative of Herodotus may be mentioned Bouhier, Recherches sur Herodote (See also:

• DIJON

Dijon, 1746) ; See also:

• RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830)

Rennell, Geography of Herodotus (London, 1800) ; See also:

• NIEBUHR, BARTHOLD GEORG (1776–1831)
• NIEBUHR, KARSTEN (1733-1815)

Niebuhr, Geography of Herodotus and Scythia (Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830) ; Dahlmann, Herodot, aus seinem Buche sein Leben (See also:

• ALTONA

Altona, 1823) ; See also:

• ELTZ

Eltz, Quaestiones Herodoteae (Leipzig, 1841); Kenrick, Egypt of Herodotus (London, 1841); See also:

• MARE

Mare, Literature of Greece, vol. iv . (London, 1852); Abicht, Ubersicht ber den Herodoteischen Dialekt (Leipzig, 1869, 3rd ed., 1874), and De codicum Herodoti fide ac auctoritate (See also:

• NAUMBURG

Naumburg, 1869) ; Melander, De anacoluthis Herodoteis (See also:

• LUND
• LUND, TROELS FREDERIK (1840- )

Lund, 1869) ; Matzat, " Uber See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die Glaubenswurdigkeit der geograph . Angaben Herodots fiber Asien," in See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes, vi.; Biidinger, Zur agyptischen Forschung Herodots (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1873, reprinted from the Sitzungsber. of the Vienna Acad.) ; Merzdorf, Quaestiones. grammaticae de dialecto Herodotea (Leipzig, 1875) ; A . See also:

• KIRCHHOFF, GUSTAV ROBERT (1824-1887)
• KIRCHHOFF, JOHANN WILHELM ADOLF (1826-1908)

Kirchhoff, Uber die Entstehungszeit See also:

• DES

des Herodotischen Geschichtswerkes (Berlin, 1878); Adolf See also:

• BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882)

Bauer, Herodots Biographic (Vienna, 1878) ; H .

See also:

• DELBRUCK, HANS (1848— )
• DELBRUCK, MARTIN FRIEDRICH RUDOLF VON

Delbruck, Perser and Burgunde.rkriege (Berlin, 1887; of great importance for the See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism of the Persian Wars) ; N . Wecklein, Uber die Tradition der Perserkriege (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 1876) ; A . Hauvette-Besnault, Herodote historien des guerres mediques (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1894); J . A . R . See also:

• MUNRO, HUGH ANDREW JOHNSTONE (1819-1885)
• MUNRO, MUNRO
• MUNRO, SIR HECTOR (1726-1805)
• MUNRO, SIR THOMAS (1761-1827)

Munro, Some Observations on the Persian Wars (in various vols. of the See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal of Hellenic Studies; acute and suggestive); G . B . See also:

• GRUNDY, MRS
• GRUNDY, SYDNEY (1848– )

Grundy, The Great Persian War (London, 19oi); J . P . See also:

• MAHAFFY, JOHN PENTLAND (1839- )

Mahaffy, History of Greek Classical Literature. ii . 16 if . (London, 188o) ; E .

Meyer, Forschungen zur See also:

• ALTEN, SIR CHARLES [Karl] (1764–1840)

alten Geschichte, i . 151 if., and ii . 196 if . (See also:

• HALLE (known as HALLE-AN-DER-SAALE, t0 distinguish it from the small town of Halle in Westphalia)
• HALLE, SIR CHARLES (originally KARL HALLE) (1819-1895)

Halle, 1892–1899) ; Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, ii . 602 if . (2nd ed., See also:

• GOTHA

Gotha, 1895) ; J . B . Bury, Ancient Greek Historians (1908), lecture 2 . For notices of current literature see See also:

• BURSIAN, CONRAD (1830–1883)

Bursian's Jahresbericht . Students of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original may also consult with advantage the lexicons of See also:

• AEMILIUS, PAULUS (PAOLO Ea111.io) (d. 1529)

Aemilius See also:

• PORTUS

Portus (Oxford, 1817) and of Schweighauser (London, 1824) . On Herodotus' See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt to Hecataeus see See also:

• WELLS
• WELLS, CHARLES JEREMIAH (1798?–1879)
• WELLS, DAVID AMES (1828—1898)
• WELLS, HERBERT GEORGE (1866— )
• WELLS, SIR THOMAS SPENCER, 1ST BART

Wells, in Journ . See also:

• HELL (0. Eng. hel, a Teutonic word from a root meaning " to cover," cf. Ger. Holle, Dutch hel)

Hell .

See also:

• STUD

Stud., 1909, pt. i . (G . R.; E . M . W.) H$ROET, See also:

• ANTOINE, ANDRE (1858- )

ANTOINE, surnamed LA MAISON-See also:

• NEUVE (c. 1235–1313)

NEUVE (d . 1568), See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French poet, was born in Paris of a family connected with the famous See also:

• CHANCELLOR (M. Eng. and Anglo-Fr. canceler, chanceler, Fr. chancelier, Lat. cancellarius)

chancellor, See also:

• FRANCOIS (1558-1614)

Francois