HIMALAYA  , the name given to the mountains which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern boundary of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . The word is See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit and literally signifies " See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow-See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode," from him, snow, and dlaya, abode, and might be translated " snowy-range," although that expression is perhaps more nearly the See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent of Himachal, another Sanskrit word derived from him, snow, and dchal, See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain, which is practically synonymous with Himalaya and is often used by natives of northern India . The name was converted by the Greeks into Emodos See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti Imaos . See also:

• MODERN

Modern geographers restrict the See also:

• TERM

term Himalaya to that portion of the mountain region between India and See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet enclosed within the arms of the See also:

• INDUS

Indus and the See also:

• BRAHMAPUTRA

Brahmaputra . From the See also:

• BEND

bend of the Indus southwards towards the plains of the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab to the bend of the Brahmaputra southwards towards the plains of See also:

• ASSAM

Assam, through a length of 1500 m., is Himachal or Himalaya . Beyond the Indus, to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, the region of mountain ranges which stretches to a junction with the See also:

• HINDU

Hindu Kush See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of the See also:

• PAMIRS

Pamirs, is usually known as Trans-Himalaya . Thus the Himalaya represents the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the See also:

• GREAT

great centralupheaval—the See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau of Tibet—the northern face of which is buttressed by the Kuen Lun . Throughout this vast space of elevated plateau and mountain face geologists now trace a See also:

• SYSTEM

system of See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main chains, or axes, extending from the Hindu Kush to Assam, Structure arranged in approximately parallel lines, and elmalaya traversed at intervals by main lines of drainage obliquely . See also:

• GODWIN, FRANCIS (1562-1633)
• GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759-1797)
• GODWIN, WILLIAM

Godwin-See also:

• AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817)

Austen indicates six of these See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological axi as follows: 1 . The main Central Asian See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis, the Kuen Lun forming the northern edge or See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the Tibetan plateau . 2 . The Trans-Himalayan See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of Murtagh (or Karakoram), which is lost in the Tibetan uplands, passing to the north of the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the Indus .

3 . The Ladakh chain, partly north and partly south of the Indus—for that See also:

• RIVER

river breaks across it about too m. above See also:

• LEH

Leh . This chain continues south of the Tsanpo (or Upper Brahmaputra), and becomes See also:

• PART

part of the Himalayan system . 4 . The Zaskar, or main chain of the Himalaya, i.e. the " snowy range " See also:

• PAR (Lat. par, equal)

par excellence which is indicated by See also:

• NANGA

Nanga Parbat (over-looking the Indus), and passes in a south-See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east direction to the southern See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Deosai plains . Thence, bending slightly south, it extends in the See also:

• LINE

line of snowy peaks which are seen from See also:

• SIMLA

Simla to the famous peaks of See also:

• GANGOTRI

Gangotri and Nanda Devi . This is the best known range of the Himalaya . 5: The See also:

• OUTER

outer Himalaya or Pir Panjal-Dhaoladhar ridge . 6 . The Sub-Himalaya, which is " easily defined by the fringing line of hills, more or less broad, and in places very distinctly marked off from the main chain by open valleys (dhuns) or narrow valleys, parallel to the main axis of the chain." These include the Siwaliks . Interspersed between these main geological axes are many other See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor ridges, on some of which are peaksof great See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation . In fact, the geological axis seldom coincides with the line of highest elevation, nor must it be confused with the main lines of See also:

• WATER

water-See also:

• DIVIDE

divide of the Himalaya .

On the north and north-west of See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir the great water-divide which separates the Indus drainage See also:

• AREA

area from that of the Yarkand and other See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers of See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese See also:

• TURKESTAN
• TURKESTAN, or HAZRET

Turkestan The great has been explored by See also:

• SIR

Sir F . Younghusband, and sub- northern sequently by H . H . P . Deasy . The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general result See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed of their investigations has been to prove that the of India . Murtagh range, as it trends south-eastwards and finally forms a continuous mountain barrier together with the Karakoram, is the true water-divide west of the Tibetan plateau . Shutting off the sources of the Indus affluents from those of the Central Asian system of See also:

• HYDROGRAPHY (.Gr. 6&,p, water, and cypfidiecv, to write)

hydrography, this great water-parting is distinguished by a See also:

• GROUP

group of peaks of which the See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude is hardly less than that of the Eastern Himalaya . See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high), only 750 ft. See also:

• LOWER

lower than See also:

• EVEREST, MOUNT
• EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790—1866)

Everest, affords an excellent example in See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography of a dominating, See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak-crowned water-parting or divide . From See also:

• KAILAS

Kailas on the far west to the extreme north-eastern sources of the Brahmaputra, the great northern water-parting of the Indo-Tibetan See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands has only been occasionally touched . Littledale, du Rhins and Bonvalot may have stood on it as they looked southwards towards See also:

• LHASA (LIIASSA, LASSA, " God's ground ")

Lhasa, but for some 500 or 600 m. east of Kailas it appears to be lost in the mazes of the minor ranges and ridges of the Tibetan plateau . Nor can it be said to be as yet well defined to the east of Lhasa .

The Tibetan plateau, or Chang, breaks up about the See also:

• MERIDIAN
• MERIDIAN (from the Lat. meridianus, pertaining to the south or mid-day)

meridian of 920 E., and to the east of this meridian the affiuents of the Tsanpo (the same river as the Dihong and subsequently Ba•ero as the Brahmaputra) drain no longer from the elevated Tibet . plateau, but from the rugged slopes of a See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild region of mountains which assumes a systematic conformation where its successive ridges are arranged in concentric curves arourid_ the great bend of the Brahmaputra, wherein are hidden the sources of all the great rivers of See also:

• BURMA

Burma and See also:

• CHINA

China . Neither immediately beyond this great bend, nor within it in the Himalayan regions lying north of Assam and east of See also:

• BHUTAN

Bhutan, have scientific investigations yet been systematically carried out; but it is known that the largest of the Himalayan affluents of the Brahmaputra west of the bend derive their sources from the Tibetan plateau, and break down through the containing bands of hills, carrying deposits of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold from their sources to the plains, as do all the rivers of Tibet . peaks, See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief rivers of See also:

• NEPAL, NEPAUL

Nepal flowing southwards to the See also:

• TARAI, or TERAI (i.e. " moist land ")

Tarai take their rise north of the line of highest crests, the " main range " of the Himalaya; and that some of them drain See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long lateral high-level valleys enclosed between minor ridges whose strike is parallel to the axis of the Himalaya and, occasionally, almost at right angles to the course of the main drainage channels breaking down to the plains . This formation brings the southern edge of the Tsanpo See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin to the immediate See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of the See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks of that river, which runs at its See also:

• FOOT

foot like a drain flanking a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall . It also affords material See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of that wrinkling or folding See also:

• ACTION

action which accompanied the See also:

• PROCESS

process of upheaval, when the Central Asian highlands were raised, which is more or less marked throughout the whole of the north-west See also:

• INDIAN

Indian borderland . North of Bhutan, between the Himalayan See also:

• CREST
• CREST (Lat. crista, a plume or tuft)

crest and Lhasa, this formation is approximately maintained; farther east, although the same natural forces first resulted in the same effect of successive folds of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's crust, forming extensive curves of ridge and furrow, the abundant rainfall and the totally distinct See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic conditions which govern the processes of denudation subsequently led to the erosion of deeper valleys enclosed between See also:

• FOREST

forest-covered ranges which rise steeply from the river banks . Although suggestions have been made of the existence of higher peaks north of the Himalaya than that which dominates the Everest group, no evidence has been adduced to Height of support such a contention . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the Himal peaksayan observations of See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

Major See also:

• RYDER, ALBERT PINKHAM (1847– )

Ryder and other surveyors who explored from Lhasa to the sources of the Brahmaputra and Indus, at the conclusion of the Tibetan See also:

• MISSION

mission in 1904, conclusively prove that Mount Everest, which appears from the Tibetan plateau as a single dominating peak, has no See also:

• RIVAL

rival amongst Himalayan altitudes, whilst the very remarkable investigations made by permission of the Nepal See also:

• DURBAR

durbar from peaks near Kathmandu in 1903, by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

Wood, R.E., not only See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the Everest group apart from other peaks with which they hate been confused by scientists, isolating them in the topographical system of Nepal, but clearly show that there is no one dominating and continuous range indicating a main Himalayan chain which includes both Everest and See also:

• KINCHINJUNGA, or KANCHANJANGA

Kinchinjunga . The main features of Nepalese See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

topography are now fairly well defined . So much controversy has been aroused on the subject of Himalayan altitudes that the See also:

• PRESENT

present position of scientific See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis in relation to them may be shortly stated . The heights of peaks determined by exact processes of trigonometrical observation are See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to he more or less in See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error for three reasons: (1) the extraordinary geoidal deformation of the level See also:

• SURFACE

surface at the observing stations in submontane regions; (2) See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• REFRACTION
• REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart)

refraction when rays See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse rarefied See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air in snow-covered regions; (3) ignorance of the See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations in the actual height of peaks due to the increase, or decrease, of snow .

The value of the heights attached to the three highest mountains in the See also:

• WORLD

world are, for these reasons, adjudged by See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel S . G . Burrard, the Supt . Trigonometrical Surveys in India, to be in probable error to the following extent:this crumpling is to be detected except in the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt Range, and the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

Peninsula of India has been entirely See also:

• FREE

free from folding of any importance since See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early Palaeozoic times, if not since the Archean See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period itself . But the contrast between the Himalaya and the Peninsula is not confined to their structure: the difference in the rocks themselves is equally striking . In the Himalaya the geological sequence, from the Ordovician to the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene, is almost entirely marine; there are indeed occasional breaks in the See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, but during nearly the whole of this long period the Himalayan region, or at least its northern part, must have been beneath the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea—the Central Mediterranean Sea of See also:

• NEUMAYR, MELCHIOR (1845-1890)

Neumayr or Tethys of See also:

• SUESS, EDUARD (1831– )

Suess . In the peninsula, however, no marine fossils have yet been found of earlier date than See also:

• JURASSIC

Jurassic and Cretaceous, and these are confined to the neighbourhood of the coasts; the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal fossiliferous deposits are the plant-bearing beds of the See also:

• GONDWANA

Gondwana series, and there can be no doubt that, at least since the Carboniferous period, nearly the whole of the Peninsula has been See also:

• LAND

land . Between the folded marine beds of the Himalaya and the nearly See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal strata of the peninsula lies the Indo-Gangetic See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain, covered by an enormous thickness of alluvial and See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind-blown deposits of See also:

• RECENT

recent date . The deep See also:

• BORING

boring at See also:

• LUCK

Luck-now passed through 1336 ft. of sands—reaching nearly to moo ft. below sea-level—without any sign of approaching the See also:

• BASE

base of the alluvial series . It is clear, then, that in front of the Himalaya there is a great depression, but as yet there is no indication that this depression was ever beneath the sea . Present Survey Most probable Value of Height Value . Mount Everest .

29,002 29,141 K2 (Godwin Austen) . 28,250 28,191 Kinchinjunga 28,146 28,225 In the See also:

• LIGHT

light thrown by recent researches on the structure and origin of mountain chains the explanation of these facts is no longer difficult . From early Palaeozoic times the peninsula of India has been dry land, a part, indeed, of a great See also:

• CONTINENT (from Lat. continere, "to hold together "; hence " connected," " continuous ")

continent which in Mesozoic times extended across the Indian Ocean towards South See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa . Its northern shores were washed by the Sea of Tethys, which, at least in Jurassic and Cretaceous times, stretched across the Old World from west to east, and in this sea were laid down the marine deposits of the Himalaya . The tangential pressures which are known to be set up in the earth's crust—either by the contraction of the interior or in some other way—caused the deposits of this sea to be crushed up against the rigid granites and other old rocks of the peninsula and finally led to the whole See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass being pushed forward over the edge of the part which did not crumple . The Indo-Gangetic depression was formed by the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the over-See also:

• RIDING

riding mass bending down the edge over which it rode, or else it is the lower See also:

• LIMB

limb of the S-shaped See also:

• FOLD

fold which would necessarily result if there were no fracture—the Himalaya representing the upper limb of the S . Geologically, the Himalaya may be divided into three zones which correspond more or less with orographical divisions . The northern See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone is the Tibetan, in which fossiliferous beds of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age are largely See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed—excepting in the north-west no such rocks are known on the southern flanks . The second is the zone of the snowy peaks and of the lower Himalaya, and is composed chiefly of crystalline and metamorphic rocks together with unfossiliferous sedimentary beds supposed to be of Palaeozoic age . The southern zone comprises the Sub-Himalaya and consists entirely of See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary beds, and especially of the upper See also:

• TERTIARIES (Lat. tertiarii, from tertius, third)

Tertiaries . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest beds which have hitherto yielded fossils, belong to the Ordovician system, but it is highly probable that the underlying " Haimantas " of the central Himalaya are of See also:

• CAMBRIAN

Cambrian age . From these beds up to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the Carboniferous there appears to be no break; but the Carboniferous beds were in some places eroded before the de-position of the Productus shales, which belong to the See also:

• PERMIAN

Permian period .

It is, however, possible that this erosion was merely See also:

• LOCAL

local, for in other places there seems to be a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete passage from the Carboniferous to the Permian . From the Permian to the See also:

• LIAS

Lias the sequence in the central Himalaya shows no sign of a break, nor has any unconformity been proved between the Liassic beds and the overlying See also:

• SPITI

Spiti shales, which contain fossils of See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle and Upper Jurassic age . The Spiti shales are succeeded conformably by Cretaceous beds (Gieumal See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone below and Chikkim See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone above), and these are followed without a break by Nummulitic beds of Eocene age, much disturbed and altered by intrusions of See also:

• GABBRO

gabbro and See also:

• SYENITE

syenite . Thus, in the Spiti area at least, there appears to have been continuous deposition of marine beds from the Permian Productus shales to the Eocene Nummulitic formation . The next succeeding See also:

• DEPOSIT (Lat. depositurn, from deponere, to lay down, to put in the care of)

deposit is a sandstone, often highly inclined, which rests unconformably upon the Nummulitic beds and resembles the Lower Siwaliks of the Sub-Himalaya (See also:

• PLIOCENE (from the Gr. sr?eiov, mere, and xatvbs, recent)

Pliocene) but which as yet has yielded no fossils of any See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind . The whole is overlaid unconformably by the younger Tertiaries of Hundes, which are perfectly horizontal and have been quite unaffected by any of the folds . From the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of any well-marked unconformity it is evident ,that in the northern part of the Himalayan See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt, at least in the Spiti area, there can have been no See also:

• POST

post-Archaean folding of any magnitude until after the deposition of the Nummulitic beds, and that the folding was completed before the later Tertiaries of Hundes are laid down . It was, therefore, during the See also:

• MIOCENE

Miocene period that the elevation of this part of the chain began, while the disturbance of the Siwalik-like sandstone indicates that the folding continued into the Pliocene period . Along the southern flanks of the Himalaya the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the chain is still more clearly shown . The sub-Himalaya are formed of Tertiary beds, chiefly Siwalik or upper Tertiary, while Although the northern limits of the Tsanpo basin are not sufficiently well known to locate the Indo-Tibetan watershed Himalaya even approximately, there exists some scattered north of evidence of the nature of that See also:

• STRIP

strip of Northern Himathe central See also:

• LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833)

laya on the Tibeto-Nepalese border which lies between chain of the line of greatest elevation and the trough of the showy Tsanpo . Recent investigations show that all the These determinations have the effect of placing Kinchinjunga second and Kothird on the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list . (T .

H. lf.*) See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The Himalaya have been formed by violent crumpling of the earth's crust along the southern margin of the great tableland of Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia . Outside the arc of the mountain chain no sign of the lower Himalaya proper consist mainly of pre-Tertiary rocks without fossils . Throughout the whole length of the chain, wherever the junction of the Siwaliks with the pre-Tertiary rocks has been seen, it is a great reversed See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault . West of the Blas river a similar reversed fault forms the boundary between the lower Tertiaries and the pre-Tertiary rocks of the Himalaya, while between the See also:

• SUTLEJ

Sutlej and the See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna rivers, where the lower Tertiaries help to form the lower Himalaya, the fault lies between them and the Siwaliks . The hade of the fault is constantly inwards, towards the centre of the chain, and the older rocks which form the Himalaya proper, have been pushed forward over the later beds of the sub-Himalaya . But the fault is more than an See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary reversed fault: it was, nearly every-where, the northern boundary of deposition of the Siwalik beds, and only in a few instances do any of the Siwalik deposits extend even to a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance beyond it . The fault in fact was being formed during the deposition of the Siwalik beds, and as the beds were laid down, the Himalaya were pushed forward over them, the Siwaliks themselves being folded and upturned during the process . Accordingly, in some places the Siwaliks now form a continuous and See also:

• CON

con-formable series from base to See also:

• SUMMIT

summit, in other places the middle beds are absent and the upper beds of the series See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest upon the upturned and denuded edges of the lower beds . The Siwaliks are fluviatile and torrential deposits similar to those which are now being formed at the foot of the mountains, in the Indo-Gangetic plain; and their relations to the older rocks of the Himalaya proper were very similar to those which now exist between the deposits of the plain and the Siwaliks themselves . But the great fault just described is not the only one of this See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . There is a series of such faults, approximately parallel to one another, and although they have not been traced throughout the whole chain, yet wherever they occur they seem to have formed the northern boundary of deposition of the deposits immediately to the south of them . It appears, therefore, that the Himalaya See also:

• GREW, NEHEMIAH (1641-1712)

grew southwards in a series of stages .

A reversed fault was formed at the foot of the chain, and arranged between the same parallel system of folds as we see on the western frontier, connected by short transverse gaps where the rivers See also:

• CROSS

cross the folds, frequently to resume a course parallel to that origin-ally held . An instance of this occurs where the Indus suddenly breaks through the well-defined Ladakh range in the North-west Himalaya to resume its north-See also:

• WESTERLY

westerly course after passing from the northern to the southern side of the range . The See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason assigned for these extraordinary diversions of the drainage right across the general strike of the ridges is that it is antecedent--i.e. that the lines of drainage were formed ere the folds or anticlinals were raised; and that the drainage has merely maintained the course originally held, by the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of erosion during the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual process of upheaval . In the outer valleys of the Himalaya the sides are generally steep, so steep as to be liable to landslip, whilst the streams are still cutting down the river beds and have not yet reached the See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of See also:

• EQUILIBRIUM (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and libra, a balance)

equilibrium . Here and there a valley has become filled with alluvial detritus owing to some local impediment in the drainage, and when this occurs there is usually to be found a fertile and productive See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field for See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture . The straits of the See also:

• JHELUM, or JEHLAM
• JHELUM, or JEHLAM (Hydaspes of the Greeks)

Jhelum, below Baramulla, probably See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the lovely vale of Kashmir, which is in form (if not in principles of construction) a repetition on See also:

• GRAND

grand See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of the See also:

• MAIDAN

Maidan of the See also:

• AFRIDI

Afridi See also:

• TIRAH

Tirah, where the drainage from the slopes of a great See also:

• AMPHITHEATRE (Gr. 441, around, and O&arpov, a place for spectators)

amphitheatre of hills is collected and then arrested by the See also:

• GORGE

gorge which marks the outlet to the Bara . Other rivers besides the Indus and the Brahmaputra begin by draining a considerable area north of the snowy range—the Sutlej, 1 the Kosi, the See also:

• GANDAK

Gandak and the Subansiri, for example . General All these rivers break through the main snowy range ere Himalayan they twist their way through the southern hills to the formation plains of India . Here the " antecedent " theory will not is typical. suffice, for there is no sufficient catchment area north of the snows to support it . Their formation is explained by a process of " cutting back," by which the heads of these streams are gradually N . See also:

• MEAT

Meat Kalaoth Ra R See also:

• STALL (0. Eng. steall, stael, cf. Du. stal, Ger. and Swed. Stall, a common Teutonic word for a place, station, place for standing in; the root is the Indo-European std–, to stand, seen also in Latin stabulum, Greek vraO bs, and in stallion, an entire hors

stall R Pe/aiR r . E amon .

~- r _"`:,.'`!`!~-~-:`~~:'' . `f3\~!%;\~-~ t~~~4i.'rj t~':s~`o`'•~~`.`.dll1\~~:~~: .. ~~ ~;as 6t 6 .. F P ° b D c o =Recenti d=Upper Siwalik See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate; cai/lddle siwalik sandstones; b=Lower ()Vahan) aiwaliks; a.=Nummulitic; n=Older rocks of Himalayas C G Midd1 Di55 See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

Section across the sub-Himalayan zone . those observed in moving from the See also:

• EQUATOR (Late Lat. aequator, from aequare, to make equal)

equator to the poles . One See also:

• HALF

half of the See also:

• TOTAL

total mass of the See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere and three-fourths of the water outer fragments ride over those within . The great thrust-See also:

• PLANE

plane suspended in it in the form of vapour See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie below the See also:

• AVERAGE

average altitude which is thus imagined to exist at the base of the Himalaya, corre- of the Himalaya; and of the See also:

• RESIDUE (through the French, from the Lat. residuum, a remainder, from residere, to remain)

residue, one-half of the air and virtually :ponds with the " major thrusts " of the N.W . Highlands of See also:

• SCOTLAND
• SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
• SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF

Scotland, almost all the vapour come within the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the highest peaks. and the reversed faults which appear at the surface with the " minor ' The See also:

• REGULAR

regular variations in pressure of the air indicated by the barothrusts." (P . LA.) See also:

• METER, ELECTRIC

meter and the See also:

• ANNUAL

annual and diurnal oscillations are as well marked in Such is the general outline of Himalayan See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution as now under- the Himalaya as elsewhere, but the amount of vapour held in See also:

• SUS

sus-stood, and the process of it has led to certain marked features of See also:

• PENSION (Lat. pensio, a payment, from pendere, to weigh, to pay)

pension diminishes so rapidly with the altitude that not more than scenery and topography . Within the area of the trans- one-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth (sometimes only one-tenth) of that observed at the foot.of TopO- Indus mountains we have beds of hard limestone or See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand- the mountains is found at the greatest heights . This is dependent graphical results of See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone alternating with soft shales, which leads to the on the temperature of the air which rapidly decreases with altitude . evolu- scooping out by erosion of long narrow valleys where the On the mountains every altitude has its corresponding temperature, Hon. shales occur, and the passage of the streams through deep an elevation of woo ft. producing a tall of 3or about i to each rifts or See also:

• GORGES, SIR FERDINANDO (c. 1566-1647)

gorges across the hard limestone anticlinals, which 300 ft .

The mean See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter temperature at ;o00 ft . (which is about the stand in irregular series of parallel ridges with the eroded valleys average height of Himalayan " See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill stations ") is 44° F. and the between . The great mass of the Himalaya exhibits the same structure, summer mean about 65° F . At 9000 ft. the mean temperature of due to the same conditions acting for longer periods and on a much the coldest See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month is 326 F . At 12.000 ft. the thermometer never falls larger scale; but the structure is varied in the eastern portions of the below freezing-point from the end of May to the middle of See also:

• OCTOBER

October, mountains by the effect of different climatic conditions, and especially by the greater rainfall . Instead of wide, barren, wind-swept valleys, here are found fertile alluvial plains—such as See also:

• MANIPUR

Manipur—hut for the most part the erosive action of the river has been able to keep See also:

• PACE (through O. Fr. pas, from Lat. passus, step, properly the stretch of the leg in walking, from pandere, to stretch)
• PACE, RICHARD (c. 1482-1536)

pace with the rise of the river See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed, and we have deep, steep-sided valleys Ramganga H, Plant S . ap = v '\Giraga~S`ot . ' • :as SdAp,,r Ohdr ,.`ter sr . upon this fault the mountains were pushed forward over the beds deposited at their base, crumpling and folding them in the process, and forming a sub-Himalayan ridge in front of the main chain . After a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time a new fault originated at the foot of the sub-Himalayan zone thus raised, which now became part of the Himalaya themselves, and a new sub-Himalayan chain was formed in front of the previous one . The earthquakes of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day show that the process is still in operation, and in time the deposits of the present Indo-Gangetic plain will be involved in the folds . The regular form of the Himalaya, constituting an arc of a true circle, appears to indicate that the whole chain has been pushed forward as one mass upon a gigantic thrust-plane; but, if so, the clip of the plane must be See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low, for a line See also:

• DRAWN

drawn along the southern foot of the Himalaya would coincide with the outcrop of a plane inclined to the surface at an See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of about 14° .

The thrust-plane, passes is not more than to,000 owing to this process of cutting down then. does not coincide with any of the boundary faults already by erosion and gradual encroachment into the northern basin. mentioned, which are usually inclined at angles of 5o° or 6o° . The See also:

• METEOROLOGY (Gr. JerEwpa, and hb'yos, i.e. the science of things in the air)

Meteorology.—Independently of the enormous variety of topolatter are due to the fact that, although, perhaps, the whole mass ' graphical conformation contained in the Himalayan system, the vast above the thrust-plane may move, yet the pressure which pushes it altitude of the mountains alone is sufficient to cause modifications of forwards necessarily proceeds from behind . The back, accordingly, See also:

• CLIMATE

climate in ascending over their slopes such as are not surpassed by moves faster than the front, and the whole is packed together; as when an See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice-See also:

• FLOE (of uncertain derivation; cf. Norse flo, layer, level plain)

floe drives against the See also:

• SHORE

shore, the ice breaks and the eating their way northwards owing to the greater rainfall on the southern than on the northern slopes . The result of this process is well exhibited in the relative steepness of slope on the Indian and Tibetan sides of the passes to the Indus plateau . On the southern or Indian side the routes to Tibet and Ladakh follow the levels of Himalayan valleys with no remarkably steep gradients till they near the approach to the water-divide . The slope then steepens with the ascending See also:

• CURVE (Lat. curvus, bent)

curve to the summit of the pass, from which point it falls with a comparatively See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle gradient to the general level of the plateau . The Zoji La, the Kashmir water-divide between the Jhelum and the Indus, is a prominent See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case in point, and all the passes from the See also:

• KUMAON

Kumaon and See also:

• GARHWAL, or GURWAL

Garhwal hills into Tibet exhibit this formation in a marked degree . Taking the average elevation of the central axial line of snowy peaks as 19,000 ft., the average height of the and at 15,000 it. it is seldom above that point even in the height of summer . It should he rioted that the thermometrical conditions of Tibet vary considerably from those of the Himalaya . At 12,000 ft. in Tibet the mean of the hottest month is about 6o° F. and of the coldest about to° F. whilst, at 15,000 It. the See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost is only permanent from the end of October to the end of See also:

• APRIL

April . The See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of vegetation and topographical conformation largely influence the question of local temperature . For instance it may be found that the difference of temperature between forest-clad ranges and the Indian plains is twice as much in April and May as in See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December or See also:

• JANUARY

January; and the difference between the temperature of a well-wooded hill top and the open valley below may vary from 9° to 24° within twenty-four See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours .

The general relations of temperature to altitude as determined by Himalayan observations are as follows: (I) The decrease of temperature with altitude is most rapid in summer . (2) The annual range diminishes with the elevation . (3) The diurnal range diminishes with the elevation . Comparisons are, however, See also:

• APT

apt to become anomalous when applied to elevated zones with a dense covering of forest and a great quantity of See also:

• CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as " clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon chid is only used in the sense of " a ma

cloud and open and uncloudy regions both above and below the forest-clad tracts . The chief rainfall occurs in the summer months between May and October (i.e. the period of the See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon rains of India) the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder Rainfall. of the See also:

• YEAR

year being comparatively dry . The fall of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain over the great plain of northern India gradually diminishes in quantity, and begins later, as we pass from east to west . At the same time the rain is heavier as we approach the Himalaya and the greatest falls are measured in its outer ranges; but the quantity again diminishes as we pass onward across the chain, and on arriving at the border of Tibet, behind the great line of snowy peaks, the rain falls in such small quantities as to be hardly susceptible of measurement . Diurnal currents of wind, which are established from the plains to the mountains during the day, and from the hills to the plains during the See also:

• NIGHT

night, are important agents in distributing the rainfall . The condensation of vapour from the ascending currents and their gradual exhaustion as they are precipitated on successive ranges is very obvious in the cloud effects produced during the monsoon, the southern or windward face of each range being clothed day after day with a See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white crest of cloud whilst the northern slopes are often See also:

• LEFT

left entirely free . This shows how large a proportion of the vapour is arrested and how it is that only by drifting through the deeper gorges can any moisture find its way to the Tibetan table-land . The yearly rainfall, which amounts to between 6o and 70 in. in the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

delta of the See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges, is reduced to about 40 in. when that river issues from the mountains, and diminishes to 30 in. at the debouchment of the Indus into the plains . At See also:

• DARJEELING

Darjeeling (7000 ft. altitude) on the outer ranges of the eastern Himalaya it amounts to about 120 in .

At Naini Tal north of the See also:

• UNITED

United Provinces it is about 90 in.; at Simla about 8o in., diminishing still further as one approaches the north-western hills . All these stations are about the same altitude . In the eastern Himalaya the ordinary winter limit of snow is 6000 ft. and it never lies for many days even at 7000 ft . In Kumaon, Snowfall on the west, it usually reaches down to the 5000 ft. level and occasionally to 2500 ft . Snow has been known to fall at See also:

• PESHAWAR

Peshawar . At Leh, in western Tibet, hardly 2 ft. of snow are usually registered and the fall on the passes between 17,000 and 19,000 ft. is not generally more than 3 ft., but on the Himalayan passes farther east the falls are much heavier . Even in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September these passes may be quite blocked and they are not usually open till the middle of See also:

• JUNE

June . The snow-line, or the level to which snow recedes in the course of the year, ranges from 15,000 to 16,000 ft. on the southern exposures of the Himalaya that carry perpetual snow, along all that part of the system that lies between See also:

• SIKKIM

Sikkim and the Indus . It is not till December that the snow begins to descend for the winter, although after September light falls occur which See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover the mountain sides down to 12,000 ft., but these soon disappear . On the snowy range the snow-line is not lower than 18,500 ft. and on the summit of the table-land it reaches to 20,000 ft . On all the passes into Tibet vegetation reaches to about 17,500 ft., and in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August they may be crossed in ordinary years up to 18,400 ft. without finding any snow upon them; and it is as impossible to find snow in the summer in Tibet at 15,500 ft. above the sea as on the plains of India . Glaciers.—The level to which the Himalayan glaciers extend is greatly dependent on local conditions, principally the extent and elevation of the snow basins which feed them, and the slope and position of the mountain on which they are formed .

Glaciers on the outer slopes of the Himalaya descend much lower than is commonly the case in Tibet, or in the most elevated valleys near the snowy range . The glaciers of Sikkim and the eastern mountains are believed not to reach a lower level than 13,500 or 14,000 ft . In Kumaon many of them descend to between 11,500 and 12,500 ft . In the higher valleys and Tibet 15,000 and 16,000 ft. is the ordinary level at which they end, but there are exceptions which descend far lower . In See also:

• EUROPE

Europe the glaciers descend between 3000 and 5000 ft. below the snow-line, and in the Himalaya and Tibet about the same holds See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good . The summer temperatures of the points where the glaciers end on the Himalaya also correspond fairly with those of the corresponding positions in See also:

• EUROPEAN

European glaciers, viz. for See also:

• JULY

July a little below 6o° F., August 58° and September 55° . Measurements of the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement of Himalayan glaciers give results according closely with those obtained under analogous conditions in the See also:

• ALPS

Alps, viz. rates from 91 to 14; in. in twenty-four hours . The See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion of one See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier from the middle of May to the middle of Octoberaveraged 8 in. in the twenty-four hours . The dimensions of the glaciers on the outer Himalaya, where, as before remarked, the valleys descend rapidly to lower levels, are fairly comparable with those of Alpine glaciers, though frequently much exceeding them in length—8 or io m. not being unusual . In the elevated valleys of northern Tibet, where the destructive action of the summer See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is far less, the development of the glaciers is enormous . At one locality in north-western Ladakh there is a continuous mass of snow and ice extending across a snowy ridge, measuring 64 m. between the extremities of the two glaciers at its opposite ends . Another single glacier has been surveyed 36 m. long .

The northern tributaries of the See also:

• GILGIT

Gilgit river, which joins the Indus near its south-westerly bend towards the Punjab, take their rise from a glacier system which is probably unequalled in the world for its extent and magnificent proportions . Chief amongst them are the glaciers which have formed on the southern slopes of the Murtagh mountains below the group of gigantic peaks dominated by Mount Godwin-Austen (28,250 ft. high) . The Biafo glacier system, which lies in a long narrow trough extending south-west from See also:

• NAGAR

Nagar on the See also:

• HUNZA (also known as KANJUT)

Hunza to near the base of the Murtagh peaks, may be traced for 90 M. between mountain walls which See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower to a height of from 20,000 to 25,000 ft. above sea-level on either side . In connexion with almost all the Himalayan glaciers of which precise accounts are forthcoming are See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient moraines indicating some previous See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition in which their extent was much larger than now . In the east these moraines are very remarkable, extending 8 or to m . In the west they seem not to go beyond 2 or 3 M. reach . They have been observed on the summit of the table-land as well as on the Himalayan slope . The explanation suggested to account for the former great See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of glaciers in See also:

• NORWAY
• NORWAY (Norge)

Norway would seem applicable here . Any modification of the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast-line which should sub-See also:

• MERGE

merge the area now occupied by the North Indian plain, or any considerable part of it, would be accompanied by a much wetter and more equable climate on the Himalaya; more snow would fall on the highest ranges, and less summer heat would be brought to See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear on the destruction of the glaciers, which would receive larger supplies and descend lower . See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

Botany.—Speaking broadly, the general type of the See also:

• FLORA

flora of the lower, hotter and wetter regions, which extend along the great plain at the foot of the Himalaya, and include the valleys of the larger rivers which penetrate far into the mountains, does not differ from that of the contiguous peninsula and islands, though the tropical and insular character gradually becomes less marked going from east to west, where, with a greater elevation and distance from the sea and higher See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude, the rainfall and humidity diminish and the winter See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold increases . The vegetation of the western part of the plain and of the hottest zone of the western mountains thus becomes closely allied to, or almost identical with, that of the drier part