HINDOSTANT LITERATURE  . The writings dealt with in this See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article are those composed in the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular of that See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India which is properly called Hindustan,—that is, the valleys of the See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna and See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers as far See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east as the See also:

• RIVER

river Kos, and the See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract to the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south including See also:

• RAJPUTANA

Rajputana, Central India (See also:

• BUNDELKHAND

Bundelkhand and Baghelkhatid), the Narmada (See also:

• NERBUDDA, or NARBADA

Nerbudda) valley as far See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west as See also:

• KHANDWA

Khandwa, and the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HALF

half of the Central Provinces . It does not include the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab proper (though the See also:

• TOWN

town See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population there speak Hindustani), nor does it extend to See also:

• LOWER

Lower See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal . In this region several different dialects prevail . The See also:

• PEOPLE

people of the towns everywhere use chiefly the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language called Urdl or Rekhta,= stocked with See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian words and phrases, and ordinarily written in a modification of the Persian See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country folk (who form the immense See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority) speak different varieties of See also:

• HINDI, EASTERN
• HINDI, WESTERN

Hindi, of which the word-stock derives from the Prakrits and See also:

• LITERARY

literary See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit, and which are written in the Devanagari or Kaithi character . Of these the most important from a literary point of view, proceeding from west to east, are Marwari and Jaipuri (the See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages of Rajputana), Brajbhasha (the language of the country about Mathura and See also:

• AGRA

Agra), Kanauji (the language of the lower Ganges-Jumna See also:

• DOAB

Doab and western See also:

• ROHILKHAND

Rohilkhand), Eastern Hindi, also called Awadhi and Baiswari (the language of Eastern Rohilkhand, Oudh and the See also:

• BENARES

Benares See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the See also:

• UNITED

United Provinces) and See also:

• BIHARI (properly Bih(iri)

Bihari (the language of Bihar or See also:

• MITHILA

Mithila, comprising several distinct dialect8)4 What is called High Hindi is a See also:

• MODERN

modern development, for literary purposes, of the See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect of Western Hindi spoken in the See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of See also:

• DELHI, DEHLI

Delhi and thence northwards to the See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya, which has formed the vernacular basis of See also:

• URDU

Urdu; the Persian words in the latter have been eliminated and replaced by words of Sanskritic origin, and the See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order of words in the See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence which is proper to = Urdu is a See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish word meaning a See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp or See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army with its followers, and is the origin of the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European word See also:

• HORDE

horde . Rekhta means " scattered, strewn," referring to the way in which Persian words are intermixed with those of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian origin; it is used chiefly for the literary form of Urdu . Sing . Plur . 1 . Jul See also:

• HAT

hat 2. See also:

• HAI (939-1038)

hai ho 3. hai hat The derivation of ha, See also:

• HIT

hit, See also:

• HAIL (O. Eng. kcegl and hagol, 1 cf. the cognate Teutonic hagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. K&XX17E, pebble, is probably allied)

hail, and aheu is uncertain .

They are usually derived from the Skr. asmi, I am; but this presents many difficulties . An old form of the third See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person singular is hwai, and this points to the Pr. havai, he is, See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to the Skr. bhavati, he becomes . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand this does not See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account for the initial a of aheu . This last word is in the form of a past tense, and it may be a secondary formation from asmi . The P. si is not a feminine of Al, as usually stated, but is a survival of the Skr. asit, Pr. asi, was . As in the See also:

• PRAKRIT (prakrta, natural)

Prakrit form, si is employed for both genders, both See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers and all persons . Sa is a secondary formation from this, on the See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy of the H. that', which is from the Skr. sthitas, Pr. thin, stood, and is a participial form like cala; thus, woh tha. he was; woh See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin, she was . The Br. hau is a modern past of haft, while hutau is probably by origin a See also:

• PRESENT

present participle of the Skr. bhu, become, Pr. huntad . The E.H. baleu, is the Skr. varte, Ap. vattau . Raheu is the past tense of the See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root rah, remain . The future participle passive is everywhere freely used as an See also:

• INFINITIVE

infinitive or verbal noun; thus, H. ca.1na, E.H. calab, the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of going, to go . There is a whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of derivative verbal forms, A abhrathsa .

See also:

• PANJABI (properly PANJABI')

Panjabi . See also:

• HINDOSTANI
• HINDOSTANI (properly Hindustani, of or belonging to Hindostan')

Hindostani . Braj Eastern p Bhasha . Hindi . Old Present cattail calla calu calall calall Singular I. callass, calla See also:

• TALE (O.Eng. talu, number, account, story; the word is common to many Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Zahl, number, Erzahlung, narrative, Du. taal, speech, language)

tale calai See also:

• CALAS, JEAN (1698-1762)

calas „ 2. callahi calla tale calai calai Plural 1. callai calliye tale calat calat „ 2. callahil calld calo calau calau „ 3. callahu callau tale See also:

• CALM

calm calm Present Participle callanti, callda calla calatu See also:

• MICA

mica Past Part . Passive callaht callia cala calyau cala Future Part . Passive . callanta-u callna calna calnau calab callia-u .. caliwau” callania-u calliavva-u the indigenous speech is more strictly adhered to than in Urdu, than 400 years after Chand's See also:

• DEATH

death, with his See also:

• PATRON

patron Prithwi-Raj, which under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Persian constructions has admitted in 1193 . 'There is, therefore, considerable See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to doubt many inversions. whether we have in it much of Chand's See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition in its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original As in many other countries, nearly all the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early vernacular shape; and the nature of the incidents described enhances this literature of Hindustan is in See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse, and See also:

• WORKS

works in See also:

• PROSE

prose are a doubt . The detailed See also:

• DATES

dates contained in the See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

Chronicle have been modern growth.' Both Hindi and Urdu are, in their application shown by Kabiraj Syamal Das 3 to be in every See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case about to literary purposes, at first intruders upon the ground already ninety years astray . It tells of repeated conflicts between the occupied by the learned languages Sanskrit and Persian, the See also:

• HERO (Gr. open)
• HERO, THE YOUNGER

hero Prithwi-Raj and See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

Sultan Shihabuddin, of See also:

• GHOR, or GHUR

Ghor (Muhammad former representing See also:

• HINDU

Hindu and the latter Musalman culture . Ghori), in which the latter always, except in the last See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• BATTLE

battle, But there is this difference between them, that, whereas Hindi comes off the worst, is taken prisoner and is released on pay-has been raised to the dignity of a literary speech chiefly by ment of a See also:

• RANSOM (from Lat. redemptio, through Fr. rancon)

ransom; these seem to be entirely unhistorical, our impulses of revolt against the See also:

• MONOPOLY (Gr. govomeXla or govoircaXwv, exclusive sale, from govds, alone, and irwXeiv, to sell)

monopoly of the Brahmans, contemporary Persian authorities knowing of only one encounter Urdu has been cultivated with See also:

• GOODWILL

goodwill by authors who have (that of Tirauri (Tirawari) near Thenesar, fought in 1191) in themselves highly valued and dexterously used the polished which the Sultan was defeated, and even then he escaped un-Persian .

Both Sanskrit and Persian continue to be employed captured to See also:

• LAHORE

Lahore . The See also:

• MONGOLS

Mongols (See also:

• BOOK

Book XV.) are brought on occasionally for composition by Indian writers, though much the See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage more than See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years before they actually set See also:

• FOOT

foot in fallen from their former See also:

• ESTATE (through O. Fr. estat, mod. flat, from Lat. status, state, condition, position, stare, to stand)

estate; but for popular purposes it India, and are related to have been vanquished by the See also:

• REDOUBT (Fr. redoute, from Med. Lat. reductus, a place of retreat, refuge, reducere, lead back, retire; the intrusive b is due to the O. Fr. redoubter, to fear, Lat. dubitare, to doubt)

redoubt-may be said that their vernacular rivals are now almost in See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole able Prithwi-Raj . It is evident that such a See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record cannot See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field. possibly be, in its entirety, a contemporary chronicle; but The subject may be conveniently divided as follows:— nevertheless it appears to contain a considerable See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element which, 1 . Early Hindi, of the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period during which the language was being from its language, may belong to Chand's own See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, and represents fashioned as a literary See also:

• MEDIUM

medium out of the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Prakrits, represented the earliest surviving document in Hindi . " Though we may not by the old heroic poems of Rajputana and the literature of the early the actual See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text of Chand, we have certain' in his writings Bhagals or Vaishnava reformers, and extending from about A.D . 1100 possess certainly to 1550; some of the See also:

• OLDEST

oldest known specimens of Gaudian literature, 2 . See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle Hindi, representing the best age of Hindi See also:

• POETRY

poetry, and abounding in pure Apabhramsa Sauraseni Prakrit forms " reaching from about 1550 to the end of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century; (Grierson) . 3 . The rise and development of literary Urdu, beginning about the It is very difficult now to form a just estimate of the poem as end of the 16th century, and reaching its height during the 18th; literature . The language, essentially transitional in character, See also:

• CON

con- 4 . The modern period, marked by the growth of a prose literature sists largely of words which have See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long since died out of the vernacular in both dialects, and dating from the beginning of the 19th century, speech . Even the most learned See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day are 1 .

Early Hindi.—Our knowledge of the ancient metrical unable to interpret it with confidence; and the meaning of the verses See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

chronicles of Rajputana is still very imperfect, and is chiefly must be sought by investigating the processes by which Sanskrit derived from the monumental See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• TOD, JAMES (1782-1835)

Tod called and Prakrit forms have been transfigured in their progress into Hindi The See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals and Antiquities o Ra'asthan (published in 182 Chand appears, on the whole, to exhibit the merits and defects of of J (P 9– ballad chroniclers in See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general . There is much that is lively and 1832), which is founded on them . It is in the nature of See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn- spirited in his descriptions of fight or See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council; and the characters of positions of this character to be subjected to perpetual revision the See also:

• RAJPUT

Rajput warriors who surround his hero are often sketched in their and recasting; they are the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of the See also:

• FAMILY

family bards of the utterances with skill and animation . The See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound, however, frequently dynasties whose fortunes the and from See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation to predominates over the sense; the narrative is carried on with the Y record, g wearisome iteration and tedious unfolding of See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar themes and generation they are added to, and their language constantly images which characterize all such poetry in India; and his value, modified to make it intelligible to the people of the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

Round for us at least, is linguistic rather than literary . an original See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical fact a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich growth of See also:

• LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read)

legend Chand may be taken as the representative of a long See also:

• LINE

line of accumulates; later redactors endeavour to systematize and to successors, continued even to the present day in the Rajput assign dates, but the result is not often such as to inspire con- states . Many of their compositions are still widely popular fidence; and the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass has more the character of ballad literature as ballad literature, but are known only in oral versions sung than of serious See also:

• HISTORY

history . The materials used by Tod are nearly in Hindustan by professional singers . One of the most famous all still unprinted; his See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts are now deposited in the of these is the See also:

• ALBA

Alba-kh¢nd, reputed to be the work of a con-library of the Royal See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic Society in See also:

• LONDON

London; and one of the temporary of Chand called Jagnik or Jagnayak, of See also:

• MAHOBA

Mahoba tasks which, on linguistic and historical grounds, should first be in Bundelkhand, who sang the praises of See also:

• RAJA

Raja-See also:

• PARMA

Parma', a ruler undertaken by the investigator of early Hindi literature is the whose See also:

• WARS

wars with Prithwi-Raj are recorded in the Mahoba-Khand examination and sifting, and the publication in their original of Chand's work . Alha and See also:

• UDAL (Dan. odel)
• UDAL, NICHOLAS (1504—1556)

Udal, the heroes of the poem, are form, of these important texts. famous warriors in popular legend, and the stories connected Omitting a few fragments of more ancient bards given by with them exist in an eastern recension, current in Bihar, as compilers of accounts of Hindi literature, the earliest author of well as in the Bundelkhaneli or western form which is best whom any portion has as yet been published in the original text known, Two versions of the latter have been printed, having is Chand Bardai, the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court See also:

• BARD

bard of Prithwi-Raj, the last Hindu been taken down as recited by illiterate professional rhapsodists. See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign of Delhi . His poem, entitled Prithi-Raj Rasau (or Another celebrated bard was Sarangdhar of Rantambhor, who Rayaa), is a vast chronicle in 69 books or cantos, comprising a flourished in 1363, and sang the praises of Hammir Deo (Hamir general history of the period when he wrote . Of this a small Deo), the Chauhan See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief of Rantambhor who See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell in a heroic portion has been printed, partly under the editorship of the See also:

• LATE

late struggle against Sultan `See also:

• ALA

Ala'uddin Khilji in 1300 .

He wrote Mr See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Beames and partly under that of Dr See also:

• RUDOLF (otherwise known as Basso NOROK and Gannon)

Rudolf Hoernle, by the Hammir Kavya and Hammir Rasau, of which an account the Asiatic Society of Bengal; but the excessively difficult is given by Tod; 4 he was also a poet in Sanskrit, in which nature of the task prevented both scholars from making much language he compiled, in 1363, the See also:

• ANTHOLOGY

anthology called Sarngadharaprogress.' Chand, who came of a family of bards, was a native Paddhati . Another work which may be mentioned (though. of Lahore, which had for nearly 170 years (since 1023) been under much more modern) is the long chronicle entitled Chhattra-Muslim See also:

• RULE

rule when he flourished, and the language of the poem Prakas, or the history of Raja Chhatarsal, the Bundela raja of exhibits a considerable See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven of Persian words . In its present Parma, who was killed, fighting on behalf of See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince Dara-Shuk6h, form the work is a redaction made by Amar Singh of Mewar, in the battle of See also:

• DHOLPUR

Dholpur won by See also:

• AURANGZEB (1618-1707)

Aurangzeb in 1658 . The about the beginning of the 17th century, and therefore more author, Lal Kabi, has given in this work a history of the valiant ' The only known exceptions are a work in Hindi called the Bundela nation which was rendered into See also:

• ENGLISH

English by See also:

• CAPTAIN (derived from Lat. ca put, head, through the Low Lat. capitanus)

Captain Chaurasi Varta (mentioned below) and a few commentaries on poems; W . R . Pogson in 1828, and printed at See also:

• CALCUTTA

Calcutta. the latter can scarcely be called literature . 2 A fresh See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical edition of the text by Pandit Mohan Lai See also:

• VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root vish, "to work ")

Vishnu Before passing on to the more important See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of early Lal Pancdia at Benares, under the auspices of the N4gari Prachtrini 3 See J.A.S.B . (1886), pp . ..6 sqq . Sabha, had reached See also:

• CANTO (from the Lat. cantus, a song)

canto See also:

• XXIV

xxiv. in 1907 . 4 Annals and Antiquities, ii . 452 n. and 472 n .

are pre-eminently those' in which it is most fitting that he should be worshipped . Both of these incarnations had for many centuries3 attracted popular veneration, and their histories had been celebrated` by poets in epics and by weavers of religious myths in Puninds or " old stories"; but it was apparently Ramanuja's teaching which secured for them, and especially for Ramachandra, their exclusive See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place as the See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of bhakti—ardent faith and See also:

• PERSONAL

personal devotion addressed to the Supreme . The adherents of Ramanuja were, however, all Brahmans, and observed very strict rules in respect of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, bathing and See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress; the new See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine had not yet penetrated to the people . Whether Ramanuja himself gave the preference to Rama against See also:

• KRISHNA (the Dark One)

Krishna as the form of Vishnu most worthy of See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship is uncertain . He dealt mainly with philosophic conceptions of the Divine Nature, and probably busied himself little with mythological legend . His mantra, or See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation, if Wilson2 was correctly informed, implies devotion to Rama; but Vasudeva (Krishna) is also mentioned as a See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• OBJECT

object of See also:

• ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth ")

adoration, and Rfimanuja himself dwelt for several years in See also:

• MYSORE

Mysore, at a See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple erected by the raja at Yadavagiri in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of Krishna in his form See also:

• RAU, KARL HEINRICH (1792-1870)

Rau.chhoi.5 It is stated that in his worship of Krishna he joined 'with that See also:

• GOD

god as his Sakti, or See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

Energy, his wife Rukmini; while the later varieties of Krishna-worship prefer to ' honour his See also:

• MISTRESS

mistress Radha . The great difference, in See also:

• TEMPER (from Lat. temperare, to mingle or compound in due proportion, to qualify, rule, regulate, to be moderate, formed from tempos, time, fit or due season)

temper and influence upon See also:

• LIFE

life, between these two forms of Vaishnava faith appears to be a development subsequent to Ramanuja; but by the time of Jaideo (about 1250) it is clear that the theme of Krishna and Radha, and the use of passionate language See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from the relations of the sexes to See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express the longings of the soul for God, had become fully established; and from that time onwards the two types of Vaishnava religious emotion diverged more and more from one another . Hindi liteiature,' the works of the Bhagats, mention may be made hereof a remarkable composition; a poem entitled the Padmcituat, the materials of which' are derived from the heroic legends of Rajputarla, but which is not the work of a bard nor even of a Hindu . The author, Malik Muhammad of ja'is, in Oudh, was a venerated Muslim devotee; to whom the Hindu raja of Amethi was greatly attached . Malik Muhammad wrote the Padmawat in 1540, the See also:

• YEAR

year in which Sher Shah Stir ousted Humayan from the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Delhi . 'The poem is composed in the purest vernacular Awadhi, with no admixture of traditional Hindu learning, and is generally to be found written in the Persian character, though the metres and language are thoroughly Indian . It professes to tell the tale of Padmawati or Padmini, a princess celebrated for her beauty who was the wife of the Chauhan raja of Chitor in Mewar .

The historical Padminl's See also:

• HUSBAND

husband was named Bhim Singh, but Malik Muhammad calls him Ratan Sen; and the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story turns upon the attempts of 'AIa'uddin Khilji, the sovereign of Delhi, to gain possession of her person . The tale of the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege of Chitor in 1303 by 'Alauddin, the heroic stand made by its defenders, who perished to the last See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man in fight with the Sultan's army, and the self-immolation of Padmini and the other See also:

• WOMEN

women, the wives and daughters of the warriors, by the fiery death called jjhar, will be found related in Tod's Rdjcisthan, i . 262 sqq . Malik Muhammad takes great liberties with "the history, and explains at the end of the poem that all is an See also:

• ALLEGORY (iXXos, other, and ayopeuav, to speak)

allegory, and that the personages represent the human soul, Divine See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom, Satan, delusion and other mystical characters . Both on account of its See also:

• INTEREST

interest as a true vernacular work, and as the composition of a Musalman who has taken the incidents of his morality from the legends of his country and not from an See also:

• EXOTIC (Gr. EWTIK6s, foreign, from few, outside)

exotic source, the poem is: memorable. has often been lithographed, and is very popular; a See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation has even been made into Sanskrit . A critical edition has been prepared by Dr G . A . Grierson ancl,PaTit Stidhakar Dwivedi . The other class of composition which is characteristic of the period of early Hindi, the literature of the Bhagats, or Vaishnava See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints, who propagated the doctrine of Mali, or faith in Vishnu, as the popular See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of Hindustan, has exercised a much more powerful influence both upon the See also:

• NATIONAL

national speech and upon the themes chosen for poetic treatment . It is also, as a See also:

• BODY

body of literature, of high See also:

• INTRINSIC (through Fr. intrinsique, from Lat. intrinsecus, inwardly; inter, within, secus, following, from root of sequi, to follow)

intrinsic interest for its form and content . Nearly the whole of subsequent poetical composition in Hindi is impressed with one or other type of Vaishnava doctrine, which, like See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism many, centuries before, was essentially a reaction against Brahmanical influence and the chains of See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste, a claim for the rights of humanity in See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the monopoly which the " twice-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born " asserted of learning, of worship, of righteousness . A large proportion of the writers were non-Brahmans, and many of them of the lowest castes .

As See also:

• SIVA

Siva was the popular deity of the Brahmans, so was Vishnu of the people; and while the literature of the Saivas and Saktas" is almost entirely in . Sanskrit, and exercised little or no influence on the popular mind in northern India, that of the Vaishnavas is largely in Hindi, and in itself constitutes the great bulk of what has been written in that language . The Vaishnava doctrine is commonly carried back to Ka-manilla, a See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman who was born about the end of the 1 tth century, at Perambur in the neighbourhood of the modern See also:

• MADRAS

Madras, and spent his life in See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern India . His works, which are in Sanskrit and consist of commentaries on the Vedanta Sutras, are devoted to establishing " the personal existence of a Supreme Deity, possessing every gracious attribute, full of love and pity for the sinful beings who adore him, and granting the released soul a See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home of eternal See also:

• BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833– )

bliss near him—a home where each soul never loses its identity, and whose See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state is one of perfect See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace." 2 In the Deity's See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite love and pity he has on several occasions become incarnate for the salvation of mankind, and of these incarnations two, Ramachandra, the prince of AyOdhya, and Krishna, the chief of the Yftdava See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan and son of Vasudeva, ' Worshippers of the energic See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power—Sakti—of Siva, represented by his See also:

• CONSORT (Lat. consors, a companion)

consort Ptirvati or Bhawanf . 2 Quoted from G . A . Grierson, See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter on " Literature," in the India Gazetteer (ed . 1907) . The cult of Rama is founded on family life, and the relation of the worshipper to the Deity is that of a See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child to a See also:

• LATHE

lathe's The morality it inculcates springs from the sacred See also:

• SOURCES

sources of human piety which in all religions have wrought most in favour of pureness of life, of fraternal helpfulness and of humble devotion to a loving and See also:

• TENDER

tender See also:

• PARENT, SIMON NAPOLEON (1855– )

Parent, who desires the See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good of mankind, His See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children, and hates violence and wrong . That of Krishna, on the other hand, had for its basis the legendary career of a less estimable human hero, whose exploits are marked by a See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of elvish and fantastic wantonness; it has more and more spent its energy in developing that See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of devotion which is perilously near to sensual thought, and has allowed the See also:

• IMAGINATION

imagination and ingenuity of poets to dwell on things unmect for verse or even for speech . It is claimed for those who first opened this way to faith that their See also:

• HEARTS

hearts were pure and theii thoughts See also:

• INNOCENT (INNOCENTIUS)
• INNOCENT (POPES)

innocent, and that the language of erotic See also:

• PASSION (post-classical Lat. passio, formed from pati, passus, to suffer, endure)

passion which they use as the vehicle of their religious emotion is merely mystical and allegorical . Thig is probable; but that these beginnings were followed by corruption in the multitude, and that the fervent impulses of adoration made way in later times for those of lust and lasciviousness, seems beyond dispute .

The worship of Krishna, especially in his See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant and youthful form (which appeals chiefly to women), is widely popular in the neighbourhood of Mathurd, the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of that See also:

• LAND

land of Braj where as a boy he lived . Its literature is mainly composed in the dialect of this region, called Brajbhasha . That of Rama, 2 The worship of Krishna is as old as Megasthenes (about 30o B.c.), who calls him Herakles, and was then, as now, located at Mathura on the Jumna river, That of Rama is probably still more ancient; the name occurs in stories of the See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha . 4 Religious Sects of the Hindus, p . 40 . 2This name of Krishna, which means " He who quits the battle," is connected with the story of the See also:

• TRANSFER (from Lat. transferre, to bear across, carry over)

transfer of the Yadava clan from Mathura to the new capital on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast of the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula of Kathiawai, the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• DWARAKA, DWARKA, or JIGAT

Dwaraka . This See also:

• MIGRATION

migration was the result of an invasion of Braj by Jarasandha, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• MAGADHA

Magadha, before whom Krishna resolved to See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat . As his path southwards took him through Rajputana and See also:

• GUJARAT

Gujarat, it is in these regions that his form Ranchhor is most generally venerated as a See also:

• SYMBOL (Gr. o-uµ(3oXov, a sign)

symbol of the shifting of the centre of divine life from Gangetic to southern India . though general throughout Hindustan, has since the time of Tulsi Das adopted for poetic use the language of Oudh, called Awadhi or Baiswari, a form of Eastern Hindi easily understood throughout the whole of the Gangetic valley . Thus these two dialects came to be, what they are to this day, the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard vehicles of poetic expression . Subsequently to Ramanuja his doctrine appears to have been set forth, about 1250, in the vernacular of the people by Jaideo, a Brahman born at Kinduvilva, the modern Kenduli, in the See also:

• BIRBHUM

Birbhum See also:

• DISTRICT

district of Bengal, author of the Sanskrit Gila GOvinda, and by Namdeeo or Nama, a tailor' of Maharashtra, of both of whom verses in the popular speech are preserved in the Adi See also:

• GRANTH

Granth of the Sikhs . But it was not until the beginning of the 15th century that the Brahman Ramanand, a prominent GOsaiii of the See also:

• SECT

sect of Ramanuja, having had a dispute with the members of his order in regard to the stringent rules observed by them, See also:

• LEFT

left the community, migrated to northern India (where he is said to have made his headquarters Galta in Rajputana), and addressed himself to those outside the Brahman caste, thus initiating the teaching of Vaishnavism as the popular faith of Hindustan .

Among his twelve disciples or apostles were a Rajput, a Jat, a See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather-worker, a See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

barber and a Musalman See also:

• WEAVER, JAMES BAIRD (1833- )

weaver; the last-mentioned was the celebrated See also:

• KABIR

KABIR (see See also:

• SEPARATE

separate article) . One See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short Hindi poem by Ramanand is contained in the Adi Granth, and Dr Grierson has collected See also:

• HYMNS

hymns (bhajans) attributed to him and still current in Mithila or See also:

• TIRHUT, or TIRHOOT

Tirhut . Both Ramanand and Kabir were adherents of the form of Vaishnavism where devotion is specially addressed to Rama, who is regarded not only as an incarnation, but as himself identical with the Deity . A contemporary of Ramanand, Bidyapati Thakur, is celebrated as the author of numerous lyrics in the Maithili dialect of Bihar, expressive of the other side of Vaishnavism, the passionate adoration of the Deity in the person of Krishna, the aspirations of the worshipper being mystically conveyed in the character of Radha, the cowherdess of Braj and the beloved of the son of Vasudeva . These stanzas of Bidyapati (who was a Brahman and author of several works in Sanskrit) afterwards inspired the Vaishnava literature of Bengal,whose most celebrated exponent was Chaitanya (b . 1484) . Another famous adherent of the same cult was Mira Bai, " the one great poetess of northern India " (Grierson) . This See also:

• LADY (0. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. ldfdi, lavedi; the first part of the word is hldf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development fr

lady, daughter of Raja Ratiya Rana, Rathor, of l\/Ierta in Rajputana, must have been born about the beginning of the 15th century; she was married in r413 to Raja Kumbhkaran of Mewar, who was killed by his son Uday Rana in 1469 . She was devoted to Krishna in the form of Ranchhor, and her songs have a wide currency in northern India . An important compilation of the utterances of the early Vaishnava saints or Bhagats is contained in the sacred book, or Adi Granth, of the See also:

• SIKH

Sikh Gurus . Nanak, the founder of this sect (1469–1538), though a native of the Punjab (born at Talvandi on the See also:

• RAVI

Ravi near Lahore), took his doctrine from the Bhagats (see KAsix) ; and each of the thirty-one rags, forming the body of the Granth, is followed by a compilation of texts from the utterances of Vaishnava saints, chiefly of Kabir, in See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of the teaching of the Gurus, while the whole book is closed by a bhog or conclusion, containing more verses by the same authors, as well as by a celebrated Indian Sufi, Shekh See also:

• FARID

Farid of Pakpattan . The body of the Granth (q.v.), being in old Panjabi, falls outside the See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope of this article; but the extracts included in it from the early writers of old Hindi are a See also:

• PRECIOUS (O. Fr. precios, mod. precieux, Lat. pretiosus, of high value or price, pretium)

precious See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store of specimens of authors some of whom have left no other record in the surviving literature .

The Adi Granth, which was put together about 1600 by Arjun, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs, sets forth the creed of the sect in its original pietistic form, before it assumed the militant character which afterwards distinguished it under the five Gurus who succeeded him . 2 . Middle Hindi.—The second period, that of middle Hindi, begins with the reign of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

Emperor See also:

• AKBAR, AKHBAR

Akbar (1556-1605); and it is not improbable that the broad and liberal views of this great monarch, his active sympathy with his Hindu subjects, the interest which he took in their religion and literature, and the peace which his organization of the See also:

• EMPIRE

empire secured for Hindo- ' In the Granth Namdeo is called a See also:

• CALICO

calico-printer, Chhipi . The See also:

• MARATHI (properly Marathi)

Marathi tradition is that he was a tailor, Shimpi; it is probable that the latter word, being unknown in northern India, has been wrongly rendered by the former . stan, had an important effect on the great development of Hindi poetry which now set in ? Akbar's court was itself a centre of poetical composition . The court musician Tan See also:

• SAN

San (who was also a poet) is still renowned, and many verses composed by him in the Emperor's name live to this day in the memory of the people . Akbar's favourite See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister and See also:

• COMPANION (through the O. Fr. compaignon or compagnon, from the Late Lat. companio,—cum, with, and panis, bread,—one who shares meals with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. compagnus, one of the same pages or district)

companion, Raja Birbal (who fell in battle on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western frontier in 1583), was a musician and a poet as well as a politician, and held the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title, conferred by the Emperor, of Kabi-See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray, or poet See also:

• LAUREATE (Lat. laureatus, from laurea, the laurel tree)

laureate; his verses and witty sayings are still extremely popular in northern India, though no See also:

• COMPLETE

complete work by him is known to exist . Other nobles of the court were also poets, among them the See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan-khanan `Abdur-Rahim, son of See also:

• BAIRAM

Bairam Khan, whose Hindi dohas and kabittas are still held in high estimation, and Fa4i, See also:

• BROTHER

brother of the celebrated Abul-Fail, the Emperor's annalist . By this time the worship of Krishna as the See also:

• LOVER, SAMUEL (1797-1868)

lover of Radha (Radha-ballabh) had been systematized, and a See also:

• LOCAL

local habitation found for it at Gokul, opposite Mathura on the Jumna, some 3o m. upstream from Agra, Akbar's capital, by Vallabhacharya, a Tailinga Brahman from Madras . Born in 1478, in 1497 he See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose the land of Braj as his headquarters, thence making missionary See also:

• TOURS

tours throughout India . He wrote chiefly, if not entirely, in Sanskrit; but among his immediate followers, and those of his son Bitthalnath (who succeeded his See also:

• FATHER

father on the latter's death in 1530), were some of the most eminent poets in Hindi .

Four disciples of Vallabhacharya and four of Bitthalnath, who flourished between 1550 and 1570, are known as the As/4 Chhap, or" Eight See also:

• SEALS

Seals," and are the acknowledged masters of the literature of Braj-bhasha, in which dialect they all wrote . Their names are Krishna-Das Pay-ahari, Sur Das (the Bhat), Parmanand Das, Kumbhan Das, Chaturbhuj Das, Chhit Swami, Nand Das and Gobind Das . Of these much the most celebrated, and the only one whose verses are still popular, is Stir Das . The son of Baba See also:

• RAM
• RAM, PIERRE FRANCOIS XAVIER DE (18o4-1865)

Ram Das, who was a'See also:

• SINGER, SIMEON (1846-1906)

singer at Akbar's court, Sur Das was descended, according to his own statement, from the bard of Prithwi-Raj, Chand Bardai . A tradition gives the date of his See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth as 1483, and that of his death as 1573; but both seem to be placed too early, and in Abul-Fazl's See also:

• AIN

Ain-i Akbari he is mentioned as living when that work was completed (1596/7) . He was See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind, and entirely devoted to the worship of Krishna, to whose address he composed a great number of hymns (bhajans), which have been collected in a compilation entitled the Sur See also:

• SAGAR

Sagar, said to contain 6o,000 verses; this work is very highly esteemed as the high-See also:

• WATER

water See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark of Braj devotional poetry, and has been repeatedly printed in India . Other compositions by him were a translation in verse of the Bhagavata Purana, and a poem dealing with the famous story of Nala and Damayanti; of the latter no copies are now known to exist . The great See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of this age is Tulsi ads (q.v.) . He and Stir Das between them are held to have exhausted the possibilities of the poetic See also:

• ART

art: It is somewhat remarkable that the time of their See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appe