HINDU  See also:

• KUM

Kum), the highways of See also:

• AFGHANISTAN

Afghanistan may be classed under two heads: (1) See also:

• FOREIGN

Foreign See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade routes, and (2) See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal communications . (I) Of the many routes which See also:

• CROSS

cross the frontiers of Afghanistan the most important commercially are those which connect the See also:

• OXUS

Oxus regions and the Central Asian khanates with See also:

• KABUL

Kabul, and those which See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead from Kabul, See also:

• GHAZNI

Ghazni and See also:

• KANDAHAR

Kandahar to the plains of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India . Kabul is linked with Afghan See also:

• TURKESTAN
• TURKESTAN, or HAZRET

Turkestan and See also:

• BADAKSHAN

Badakshan by three See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main lines of communication across the Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu Kush . One of these routes follows the See also:

• BALKH

Balkh See also:

• RIVER

river to its See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head from See also:

• TASHKURGHAN

Tashkurghan, and then, preserving a high See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general level of 8000 to 9000 ft., it passes over the See also:

• WATER

water-divides separating the upper tributaries of the See also:

• KUNDUZ

Kunduz river, and drops into the valley formed by an-other tributary at See also:

• BAMIAN

Bamian . From Bamian it passes over the central See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain to Kabul either by the well-known passes of See also:

• IRAK

Irak (marking the water-See also:

• DIVIDE

divide of the Koh-i-Baba) and of Unai (marking the See also:

• SUMMIT

summit of the Sanglakh, a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of the Hindu Kush), or else, turning eastwards, it crosses into the Ghorband valley by the Shibar, a pass which is considerably See also:

• LOWER

lower than the Irak and is very seldom snowbound . From the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the Unai pass it follows the Kabul river, and from the foot of the Shibar it follows the circuitous route which is offered by the drainage of the Ghorband valley to Charikar, and thence southwards to Kabul . The main points on this route are See also:

• HAIBAK

Haibak, Bajgah and Bamian . It is full of awkward grades and See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor passes, but it does not maintain a high level generally, no pass (if the Shibar route be adopted) much exceeding 1o,000 ft . That this has for centuries been regarded as the main route northward from Kabul, the Buddhist See also:

• RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body)

relics of Bamian and Haibak See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear silent See also:

• WITNESS
• WITNESS (from O. Eng. witan, to know)

witness; but it may be doubted whether Abdur Rahman's See also:

• TALENT (Lat. talentum, adaptation of Gr. TaXavrov, balance, ! Recollections of a First Visit to the Alps (1841); Vacation Rambles weight, from root raX-, to lift, as in rXi vac, to bear, 1-aXas, and Thoughts, comprising recollections of three Continental

talent for roadmaking has not opened out better alternative lines . One of his roads connects Haibak with the Ghorband valley by the Chahardar pass across the Hindu Kush . The pass is high (nearly 14,000 ft.), but the road is excellently well laid out, and the route, which, See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of Haibak, traverses a corner of the Ghori and Baghlan districts of Badakshan, is more See also:

• DIRECT

direct . A third route also passes through Badakshan, and connects Kunduz with Charikar by the Khawak pass and Panjshir river .

The latter joins the Ghorband See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to Charikar . The Khawak (11,600 ft.) is not a high pass; the grades are easy and the snowfall usually See also:

• LIGHT

light . This high road is stated (on Afghan authority) to be kept open for khafila See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic all the See also:

• YEAR

year See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round by the employment of forced labour for clearing See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow . It is a recently See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed route and one of See also:

• GREAT

great importance to Kabul, both strategically and commercially . Routes that pass through the mountain barriers of the frontier between Peshawarand the Gomaloccur at intervals along the western border, and in the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the See also:

• INDIAN

Indian frontier they are all well marked . The Khyber, See also:

• KURRAM

Kurram and Tochi are the best known, inasmuch as all these lines of advance into Afghanistan are held by See also:

• BRITISH

British troops or Indian levies . But the Bara valley route into the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart of the See also:

• AFRIDI

Afridi See also:

• TIRAH

Tirah is not to be altogether overlooked, although it is not a trade route of any importance . Between Kabul and See also:

• JALALABAD, or JELLALABAD

Jalalabad there are two roads, one by the Lataband pass, and the other and more difficult by the Khurd-Kabul and Jagdalak passes, the latter being the See also:

• SCENE (Fr. scene, Lat. scaena, Gr. oflvil, a tent or booth, a stage or scene)

scene of the See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre of a British See also:

• BRIGADE (Fr. and Ger. brigade, Ital. brigata, Span. brigada; the English use of the word dates from the early 17th century)

brigade in 1842 . Between Jalalabad and See also:

• PESHAWAR

Peshawar is the Khyber pass (q.v.) . The Khyber was not in See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient times the main route of advance from Kabul to Peshawar . From Kabul the old route followed the Kabul river through the valley of See also:

• LAGHMAN

Laghman (or Lamghan, as the Afghans See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call it) over a See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle water-parting into the See also:

• KUNAR

Kunar valley, leaving Ningrahar and Jalalabad to the south . From the Kunar it crossed into See also:

• BAJOUR, or BAJAUR

Bajour by one of several open and comparatively easy passes, and from Bajour descended into India either by the Malakand or some other contiguous frontier gateway to the plains of Peshawar .

The Kurram route involves the Peiwar and Shutargardan passes (8600 and 10,800 ft. respectively) across the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern extensions of the Safed Koh range, and has never been a great trade route, however suitable as an alternative military See also:

• LINE

line of advance . Trade does not extend largely between Afghanistan and India by the Tochi route, being locally confined to the valley and the dis• tracts at its head, yet this is the shortest and most direct route between Ghazni and the frontier, and in the palmy days of Ghazni raiding was the road by which the great robber Mahmud occasionally descended on to the See also:

• INDUS

Indus plains . Traces of his raiding and road-making are still visible, but it is certain that he made use of the more direct route to Peshawar far more frequently than he did of the Tochi . The exact nature of the connexion between the head of the Tochi and the Ghazni See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain is still unknown to us . The See also:

• GOMAL

Gomal is the great central trade route between Afghanistan and India; and the position, which is held by a tribal See also:

• POST

post at See also:

• WANA

Wana, will do much to ensure its continued popularity . The Gomal involves no passes of any great difficulty, although it is impossible to follow the actual course of the river on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the narrow defiles which have been cut through the See also:

• RECENT

recent See also:

• CONGLOMERATE (from the Lat. conglomerare, to form into a ball, glomus, glomeris; so also the general term " conglomeration " for a miscellaneous collection of things, gathered together in a mass)

conglomerate beds which flank the plains of the Indus . It has been carefully surveyed for a possible railway See also:

• ALIGNMENT (from Fr. d and ligne, the Lat. Linea, a line)

alignment; and an excellent road now connects Omitting the See also:

• GROUP

group of northern routes to India from Central See also:

• ASIA

Asia, which pass between See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir and Afghanistan Tank (at its foot) with the See also:

• ZHOB

Zhob line of communications to See also:

• QUETTA

Quetta, and with Wana on the southern flank of See also:

• WAZIRISTAN

Waziristan . The Gomal route is of immense importance, both as a commercial and strategic line, and in both particulars is of far greater significance than either the Kurram or the Tochi . (2) Of the interior lines of communication ,those which connect the great cities of Afghanistan, See also:

• HERAT

Herat, Kabul and Kandahar, are obviously the most important . Between Kabul and Herat there is no " royal " road, the existing route passing over the frequently snow-See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound wastes that See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie below the southern flank of the great Koh-i-Baba into the upper valleys of the Hari Rud tributaries . It is a See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste, elevated, desolate region that the route traverses, and the road itself is only open at certain seasons of the year . Between Kabul and Kandahar exists the well-known and oft-traversed route by Ghazni and See also:

• KALAT

Kalat-i-See also:

• GHILZAI

Ghilzai .

There is but one insignificant waterparting—or kotal—a little to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of Ghazni; and the road, although unmade, may be considered equal to any road of its length in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe for military purposes . Between Kandahar and Herat there is the recognized trade route which crosses the See also:

• HELMUND

Helmund at See also:

• GIRISHK

Girishk and passes through See also:

• FARAH

Farah and See also:

• SABZAWAR

Sabzawar . It includes about 36o See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles of easy road, with spaces where wateris scarce . There is not a pass of any great importance, nor a river of any great difficulty, to be encountered from end to end, but the route is flanked on the north between Kandahar and Girishk by the Zamindawar hills, containing the most truculent and fanatical clans of all the Southern Afghan tribes . Little need be said of the 65 m. of route between Kandahar and the See also:

• BALUCHISTAN

Baluchistan frontier at New Chaman . It is on the whole a route across open plains and hard, stony " dasht"—a route which would offer no great difficulties to that railway See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension from Chaman which has so See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been contemplated . A very considerable trade,now passes along this route to India, in spite of almost prohibitive imposts; but the trade does not follow the railway from New Chaman to the eastern foot of the Khojak . Long strings of camels may still be seen from the See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train windows patiently treading their slow way over the Khojak pass to Kila Abdullah, whilst the train alongside them rapidly twists through the mountain See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel into the See also:

• PESHIN, or PISHIN

Peshin valley . The variety of See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is immense, as might be expected . Taking the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country as a whole, there is no climate. great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower Himalayas . Each may be placed at a point between 5o° and 60° F . But the remark-able feature of Afghan climate (as also of that of Baluchistan) is its extreme range of temperature within limited periods .

The least daily range in the north is during the See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather, the greatest in the hot . For seven months of the year (from May to See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November) this range exceeds 30° F. daily . Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure a cold of 120 below zero, rising to a maximum of 17° below freezing-point . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of r ro° to 120° is not uncommon . At Kabul, and over all the northern See also:

• PART

part of the country to the descent at See also:

• GANDAMAK

Gandamak, See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau . In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the See also:

• PEOPLE

people seldom leave their houses, and See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep close to stoves . At Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal See also:

• EQUINOX (from the Lat. aequus, equal, and nox, night)

equinox; the thermometer sinks to ro° and 15° below zero (Fahr.) ; and tradition relates the entire destruction of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once . At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an Indian See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The summer See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is great everywhere in Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in See also:

• SEISTAN, or SISTAN (SEJISTAN)

Seistan . All over Kandahar See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province the summer heat is intense, and the simoon is not unknown . The hot See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season throughout this part of the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and fiery winds; whilst the See also:

• BARE

bare rocky ridges that See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse the country, absorbing heat by See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day and radiating it by See also:

• NIGHT

night, render the summer nights most oppressive . At Kabul the summer See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun has great See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually cool .

At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once . At Herat, though 800 ft. lower than Kandahar, the summer climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether is far from disagreeable . From May to See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September the See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind blows from the N.W. with great violence, and this extends across the country to Kandahar . The winter is tolerably mild;snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie long . Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard enough for the people to See also:

• STORE (from O. Fr. estor or estoire, Late Lat. staurum or instaurum, stock, provisions, supply, from the late use of instaurare, to provide, properly to construct, renew, restore)

store See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice; yet it was not very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at Kafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in 175o, Ahmad Shah's See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army, retreating from See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night . In the northern Herat districts, too, records of the coldest See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month (See also:

• FEBRUARY

February) show the mean minimum as 17° F., and the maximum 38° . The eastern reaches of the Hari Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the people travel on it as on a road . The summer rains that accompany the S.W. See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon in India, beating along the southern slopes of the See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya, travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more clearly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in Bajour and Panjkora, under the high spurs of the Hindu Kush, and in the eastern branches of Safed Koh . See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

Rain also falls at this season at the head of Kurram valley . South of this the Suliman mountains may be taken as the western limit of the monsoon's See also:

• ACTION

action . It is quite unfelt in the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of Asia, the winter rains are the most considerable . The See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring rain, though less copious, is more important to See also:

• AGRICULTURE
• AGRICULTURE (from Lat. ages, field, and colere, to cultivate)
• AGRICULTURE, BOARD OF

agriculture than the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of snow .

In the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indications than in India . The north-west blizzards which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier . The cold is then intense and the force of the wind cyclonic . Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one . The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even more clear than the days . Marked characteristics are the great See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent to which See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change of climate can be attained by slight change of See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place . As the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• BABER

Baber said of Kabul, at one day's See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey from it you may find a place where snow never falls, and at two See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours' journey a place where snow almost never melts ! The Afghans vaunt the salubrity and See also:

• CHARM (through the Fr. from the Lat. carmen, a song)

charm of some See also:

• LOCAL

local climates, as of the Toba hills above the See also:

• KAKAR

Kakar country, and of some of the high valleys of the Safed Koh . The people have by no means that See also:

• IMMUNITY (from Lat. immunis, not subject to a munus or public service)

immunity from disease which the See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

bright, dry character of the climate and the See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical aspect of a large proportion of them might lead us to expect . Intermittent and remittent fevers are very prevalent; bowel complaints are See also:

• COMMON

common, and often fatal in the autumn . The universal See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom of sleeping on the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house-See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top in summer promotes rheumatic and neuralgic affections; and in the Koh Daman of Kabul, which the natives regard as having the finest of climates, the mortality from See also:

• FEVER (Lat. febris, connected with fervere, to burn)

fever and bowel complaint, between See also:

• JULY

July and See also:

• OCTOBER

October, is great, the immoderate use of See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit predisposing to such ailments . The See also:

• TERM

term Afghan really applies to one section only of the mixed conglomeration of nationalities which forms the people of Afghanistan, but this is the dominant section known as the See also:

• DURANI, or DURRANI

Durani .

The Ghilzai (who is almost as powerful as the Durani) claims to be of See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish origin; the Hazaras, the Chahar-See also:

• AIMAK

Aimak, Tajiks, Uzbegs, Kafirs and others are more or less subject races . Popularly any inhabitant of Afghanistan is known as Afghan on the Indian frontier without distinction of origin or See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language; but the language See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division between the Parsiwan (or See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian-speaking Afghan) and the See also:

• PATHAN

Pathan is a very distinct one . The predominance of the Afghan in Afghanistan See also:

• DATES

dates from the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 18th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century, when Ahmad Shah carved out Afghanistan from the previous See also:

• CON

con-quests of See also:

• NADIR (Arabic nadir, " opposite to," used elliptically for nadir-es-semt, "opposite to the zenith ")

Nadir Shah and called it the Durani See also:

• EMPIRE

empire . The Durani Afghans claim to be See also:

• BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within)

Ben-i-See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel, and insist on their descent from the tribes who were carried away See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive from See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine to See also:

• MEDIA

Media by See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar . Yet they also claim to be Pukhtun (or Pathan) in common with all other See also:

• PUSHTU

Pushtu-speaking tribes, whom they do not admit to be Afghan . The See also:

• BOND
• BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898)

bond of See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity between the various peoples who compose the Pathan community is simply the bond of a common language . Population . All of them recognize a common See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

code or unwritten See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law called Pukhtunwali, which appears to be similar in general character to the old Hebraic law, though modified by See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan ordinances, and strangely similar in certain particulars to See also:

• RAJPUT

Rajput custom . Besides their division into clans and tribes, the whole Afghan people may be divided into dwellers in tents and dwellers in houses; and this division is apparently not coincident with tribal divisions, for of several of the great clans at least a part is See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad and a part settled . Such, e.g., is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case with the Durani and with the Ghilzai . The settled Afghans form the See also:

• VILLAGE

village communities, and in part the population of the few towns . Their See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief occupation is with the See also:

• SOIL

soil .

They form the core of the nation and the main part of the army . Nearly all own the See also:

• LAND

land on which they live, and which they cultivate with their own hands or by hired labour . Roundly speaking, agriculture and soldiering are their See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole occupations . No Afghan will pursue a handicraft or keep a See also:

• SHOP

shop, though the Ghilzai Povindahs engage largely in travelling trade and transport of goods . As a See also:

• RACE

race the Afghans are very handsome and athletic, often with See also:

• FAIR

fair complexion and flowing See also:

• BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. beard, Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slay. barda, Russ. barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat.. barba, though, according to the New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons doubtful)
• BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900)

beard, generally See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black or See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, sometimes, though rarely, red; the features highly aquiline . The See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair is shaved off from the forehead to the top of the head, the See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder at the sides being allowed to fall in large curls over the shoulders . Their step is full of See also:

• RESOLUTION

resolution; their bearing proud and See also:

• APT

apt to be rough . The See also:

• WOMEN

women have handsome features of Jewish See also:

• CAST (from the verb meaning " to throw "; the word is Scand. in origin, cf. Dan. kaste, and Swed. kasta; " cast " in Middle Eng. took the place of the A.S. weor pan, cf. Ger. werf en)

cast (the last trait often true also of the men); fair complexions, sometimes rosy, though usually a See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale sallow; hair braided and plaited behind in two long tresses terminating in silken tassels . They are rigidly secluded, but intrigue is frequent . The Afghans, inured to bloodshed from childhood, are See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar with See also:

• DEATH

death, and audacious in attack, but easily discouraged by failure; excessively turbulent and unsubmissive to law or discipline; apparently See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

frank and affable in manner, especially when they See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope to gain some See also:

• OBJECT

object, but capable of the grossest brutality when that hope ceases . They are unscrupulous in See also:

• PERJURY (through the Anglo-Fr. perjurie, modern parjure, Lat. perjurium, a false oath, perjurare, to swear falsely)

perjury, treacherous, vain and insatiable, passionate in vindictiveness, which they will satisfy at the cost of their own lives and in the most cruel manner . Nowhere is See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime committed on such trifling grounds, or with such general impunity, though when it is punished the See also:

• PUNISHMENT (from Lat. punire, to punish, from poena, punishment, Gr. 7rocvil)

punishment is atrocious .

Among themselves the Afghans are quarrelsome, intriguing and distrustful; estrangements and affrays are of See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant occurrence; the traveller conceals and misrepresents the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time and direction of his journey . The Afghan is by breed and nature a See also:

• BIRD

bird of See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey . If from See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit and tradition he respects a stranger within his See also:

• THRESHOLD

threshold, he yet considers it legitimate to warn a See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour of the prey that is afoot, or even to overtake and See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder his See also:

• GUEST (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Gast, and Swed. gust; cognate with Lat. hostis, originally a stranger, hence enemy; cf. " host " )
• GUEST, EDWIN (1800–188o)

guest after he has quitted his roof . The repression of crime and the demand of See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation he regards alike as tyranny . The Afghans are eternally boasting of their lineage, their See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence and their prowess . They look on the Afghans as the first of nations, and each See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man looks on himself as the equal of any Afghan . They are capable of enduring great privation, and make excellent soldiers under British discipline, though there are but few in the Indian army . Sobriety and hardiness characterize the bulk of the people, though the higher classes are too often stained with deep and degrading debauchery . The first impression made by the Afghan is favourable . The See also:

• EUROPEAN

European, especially if he come from India, is charmed by their apparently frank, open-hearted, hospitable and manly See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners; but the charm is not of long duration, and he finds that the Afghan is as cruel and crafty as he is See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent . No trustworthy See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics exist showing either See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers or fluctuations in the population of Afghanistan . Within the See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

amir's dominions there are probably from four to five millions of people, and of these the vast See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are agriculturists .

The cultivators, including landowners, tenants, hired labourers and slaves, represent the working population of the country, and as industrious and successful agriculturists they are unsurpassed in Asia . They have carried the See also:

• ART

art of See also:

• IRRIGATION (Lat. in, and rigare, to water or wet)

irrigation to great per-fection, and they utilize every See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

acre of profitable soil . Certain Ghilzai clans are specially famous for their skill in the construction of the karez or underground water-channel . The See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of the country throughout is Mahommedan . Next to See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey, Afghanistan is the most powerful Mahommedan See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom in existence . The vast majority of Afghans Religion. are of the Sunni See also:

• SECT

sect; but there are, in their midst, such powerful communities of Shiahs as the Hazaras of the central districts, the See also:

• KIZILBASHES (Turkish, " Red-Heads ")

Kizilbashes of Kabul and the Turis of the Kurram border, nor is there between them that bitterness of sectarian animosity which is so marked a feature in India . The Kafirs of the mountainous region of See also:

• KAFIRISTAN

Kafiristan alone are non-Mahommedan . They are sunk in a paganism which seems to embrace some faint reflexion of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, Zoroastrian principles and the tenets of See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, originally gathered, no doubt, from the varied elements of their mixed extraction . Those contiguous Afghan tribes, who have not so long ago been converted to the faith of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam, are naturally the most fanatical and the most virulent upholders of the faith around them . In and about the. centre of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization at Kabul, instances of Ghazism are comparatively rare . In the western provinces about Kandahar (amongst the Durani Afghans—the people who claim to be Beni-Israel), and especially in Zamindawar, the spirit of fanaticism runs high, and every other Afghan is a possible See also:

• GHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghazd, to fight)

Ghazi—a man who has devoted his See also:

• LIFE

life to the extinction of other See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds . Persian is the See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular of a large part of the non-Afghan population, and is familiar to all educated Afghans; it is the language of the See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court and of literature .

Pushtu, how-ever, is the prevailing language, though it does not anage Ladngu seem to be spoken in Herat, or, roughly speaking, west literature. of the Helmund . See also:

• TURKI

Turki is spoken in Afghan Turkestan . There is a respectable amount of Afghan literature . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest See also:

• WORK

work in Pushtu is a See also:

• HISTORY

history of the See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest of See also:

• SWAT

Swat by Shaikh Mali, a chief of the Yusafzais, and See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader in the conquest (A.D . 1413-24) . In 1494 Kaju See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan became chief of the same See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan; during his See also:

• RULE

rule See also:

• BUNER

Buner and Panjkora were completely conquered, and he wrote a history of the events . In the reign of See also:

• AKBAR, AKHBAR

Akbar, See also:

• BAYAZID, or BAJAZET

Bayazid Ansari, called Pir-i-Roshan, " the See also:

• SAINT (lat. sanctus, " holy ")

Saint of Light," the founder of an heretical sect, wrote in Pushtu; as did his chief antagonist, a famous Afghan saint called Akhund Darweza . The literature is richest in See also:

• POETRY

poetry . Abdur Rahman (17th ceniury) is the best known poet . Another very popular poet is Khushal Khan, the warlike chief of the Khattaks in the time of See also:

• AURANGZEB (1618-1707)

Aurangzeb . Many other members of his See also:

• FAMILY

family were poets also . Ahmad Shah, the founder of the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy, likewise wrote poetry .

See also:

• BALLADS

Ballads are numerous . See also:

• EDUCATION

Education is confined to most elementary principles in Afghanistan . Of See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools or colleges for the purposes of a higher education befitted to the sons of noblemen and the more Education. wealthy merchants there are absolutely none; but the village school is an ever-present and very open spectacle to the passer-by . Here the younger boys are collected and instructed in the rudiments of See also:

• READING

reading, See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing and religious creed by the village See also:

• MULLAH (Arabic maula, a term which originally expresses the legal bond connecting a former owner with his manumitted slave, both patron and client being called maula, and thus suggests the idea of patronage)

mullah, or See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest, who thereby acquires an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early influence over the Afghan mind . The method of teaching is confined to that wearisome See also:

• SYSTEM

system of loud-voiced repetition which is so annoying a feature in Indian schools; and the See also:

• KORAN

Koran is, of course, the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text-See also:

• BOOK

book in all forms of education . Every Afghan See also:

• GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span. gentil hombre, Ital. gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable transl

gentleman can read and speak Persian, but beyond this acquirement education seems to be limited to the physical development of the youth by instruction in See also:

• HORSEMANSHIP

horsemanship and feats of skill . Such advanced education as exists in Afghanistan is centred in the priests and physicians; but the See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of both is extreme . The See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government of Afghanistan is an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute monarchy under the amir, and See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to the See also:

• THRONE

throne is hereditary . There are five chief See also:

• POLITICAL

political divisions in the country—namely, Kabul, Turkestan, Herat, Kandahar and Badakshan, constitu- tion and each of which is ruled by a " naib "-or See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, who See also:

• LAWS

laws. is directly responsible to the amir . Under the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of provinces the nobles and kazis (or See also:

• DISTRICT

district See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges) dispense See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice much in the feudal See also:

• FASHION (adapted from Fr. facon, agon, Lat. factio, making, facere, to do or make)

fashion . There are three classes of chiefs who form the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council or See also:

• DURBAR

durbar of the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king . These are the sirdars, the khans and the mullahs .

The sirdars are hereditary nobles, the khans are representatives of the people, and the mullahs of Mahommedan religion . The khan is elected by the clan or tribe . The clannish See also:

• ATTACHMENT

attachment of the Afghans is rather to the community than to the chief . These three classes of representatives are divided into two assemblies, the Durbar Shahi or royal See also:

• ASSEMBLY, UNLAWFUL

assembly, and the Kharwanin Mulkhi or See also:

• COMMONS

commons . The mullahs take their place in one or the other according to their individual See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . The executive officials of the amir have a selected See also:

• BODY

body, called the Khilwat, which acts as a See also:

• CABINET

cabinet council, but no member can give See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice to the See also:

• CROWN

crown without being asked to do so, or beyond the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of his own See also:

• DEPARTMENT (Fr. departement, from departir, to separate into parts)

department . The amir, in addition to being chief executive officer, is chief See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge and supreme court of See also:

• APPEAL

appeal . Any one has the right to appeal to the amir for trial, and the great amirs, Dost Mahommed and Abdur Rahman, were accessible at all times to the petitions of their subjects . Next to the amir comes the court of the kazi, the chief centre of justice, and beneath the kazi comes the kotwal, who performs, as in India, the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary functions of a See also:

• MAGISTRATE (Lat. magistratus, from magister, master, properly a public office, hence the person holding such an office)

magistrate . In large provincial towns there is a punchait, or council, for the trial of commercial cases . There are government departments for the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration of See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue, customs, post-See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office, military affairs, &c . The general law administered in all the courts of Afghanistan is,that of Islam and of the customs of the country, with developments introduced by the Amir Abdur Rahman .

The Afghan army probably numbers 50,000 regulars distributed between the military centres of Herat, Kandahar, Kabul, Mazar-See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

Defence. i-Sharif, Jalalabad and Asmar, with detachments at frontier outposts on the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of India . Abdur Rahman claimed that he could put roo,000 men into the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field within a See also:

• WEEK (from A.S. wicu, Germanic *wikon, probably=change, turn)

week for the defence of Herat . In 1896 he introduced a system of semi-enforced service whereby one man in every eight between the ages of sixteen and seventy takes his turn at military training . In this way he calculated that he could have raised 1,000,000 men armed with See also:

• MODERN

modern weapons, but his chief difficulty would be See also:

• MONEY

money and transport . The pay of the army is apt to be irregular . The amir's factories at Kabul for arms and See also:

• AMMUNITION