HINDUISM  , a See also:

• TERM

term generally employed to comprehend the social institutions, past and See also:

• PRESENT

present, of the See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus who See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India; as well as the multitudinous See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of their religious beliefs which has grown up, in the course of many centuries, on the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the Brahmanical scriptures . The actual proportion of the See also:

• TOTAL

total See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population cf India (294 millions) included under the name of " Hindus " has been computed in the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report for 19or at something like 7o% (206 millions); the remaining 30% being made up partly of the followers of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign See also:

• CREEDS (Lat. credo, I believe), or CONFESSIONS OF FAITH

creeds, such as Mahommedans, Parsecs, Christians and See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews, partly of the votaries of indigenous forms of belief which have at various times separated from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main stock, and See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent systems, such as See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism, Jainism and See also:

• SIKHISM

Sikhism; and partly of isolated See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill and See also:

• JUNGLE (Sans. jangala)

jungle tribes, such as the See also:

• SANTALS

Santals, See also:

• BHILS, or BHEELS (" bowmen," from Dravidian bit, a bow)

Bhils (Bhilla) and See also:

• KOLA

Kola, whose crude animistic tendencies have hitherto kept them, either wholly or for the most See also:

• PART

part, outside the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of the Brahmanical community . The name " See also:

• HINDU

Hindu " itself is of foreign origin, being derived from the Persians, by whom the See also:

• RIVER

river Sindhu was called Hindhu, a name subsequently applied to the inhabitants of that frontier See also:

• DISTRICT

district, and gradually ex-tended over the upper and See also:

• MIDDLE

middle reaches of the Gangetic valley, whence this whole See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country between the See also:

• HIMALAYA

Himalaya and the See also:

• VINDHYA

Vindhya mountains, See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west cf See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal, came to be called by the foreign conquerors " Hindustan," or the See also:

• ABODE (from " abide," to dwell, properly " to wait for ," to bide)

abode of the Hindus; whilst the native writers called it " Aryavarta," or the abode of the Aryas . But whilst, in its more comprehensive acceptation, the term Hinduism would thus range over the entire See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical development of Brahmanical India, it is also not infrequently used in a narrower sense, as denoting more especially the See also:

• MODERN

modern phase of See also:

• INDIAN

Indian social and religious institutions—from the earlier centuries of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era down to our own days—as distinguished from the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period dominated by the authoritative See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of pantheistic belief, formulated by the speculative theologians during the centuries immediately succeeding the Vedic period (see See also:

• BRAHMANISM

BRAHMANISM) . In this its more restricted sense the term may thus practically be taken to apply to the later bewildering variety of popular sectarian forms of belief, with its social concomitant, the fully developed See also:

• CASTE (through the Fr. from Span. and Port. casta, lineage, Lat. cast us, pure)

caste-See also:

• SYSTEM

system . But, though one may at times find it convenient to speak of " Brahmanism and Hinduism," it must be clearly understood that the distinction implied in the See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of these terms is an extremely vague one, especially from the See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological point of view . The following considerations will probably make this clear . The characteristic tenet of orthodox Brahmanism consists in the conception of an See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute, all-embracing spirit, the Brahma (neutr.), being .the one and only reality, itself un- connexion conditioned, and the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original cause and ultimate with See also:

• GOAL

goal of all individual souls (jiva, i.e. living things) . Brah-Coupled with this abstract conception are two other manism• doctrines, viz, first, the transmigration of souls (saihsa.ra), regarded by Indian thinkers as the necessary See also:

• COMPLEMENT (Lat. complementum, from complere, to fill up)

complement of a belief in the essential sameness of all the various spiritual See also:

• UNITS, DIMENSIONS OF
• UNITS, PHYSICAL

units, however contaminated, to a greater or less degree, they may be by their material embodiment; and in their ultimate re-See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union with the Paramatman, or Supreme Self; and second, the See also:

• ASSUMPTION, FEAST OF

assumption of a triple manifestation of the ceaseless working of that Absolute Spirit as a creative, conservative and destructive principle, represented respectively by the divine personalities of Brahma (masc.), See also:

• VISHNU (Sanskrit, " the worker," from root vish, "to work ")

Vishnu and See also:

• SIVA

Siva, forming the Trimurti or Triad . As regards this latter, purely exoteric, doctrine, there can be little doubt of its owing its origin to considerations of theological expediency, as being calculated to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply a sufficiently wide See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of belief for See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance; and the very fact of this divine triad including the two See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal deities of the later sectarian See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, Vishnu and Siva, goes far to show that these two gods at all events must have been already in those See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early days favourite See also:

• OBJECTS

objects of popular See also:

• ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, mouth; i.e. " carrying to one's mouth ")

adoration to an extent sufficient to preclude their being ignored by a See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic priesthood See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent upon the formulation of a See also:

• COMMON

common creed . Thus, so far from sectarianism being a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere modern development of Brahmanism, it actually goes back to beyond the formulation of the Brahmanical creed . See also:

• NAY, or NEY

Nay, when, on analysing the functions and attributes of those two divine figures, each of them is found to be but a See also:

• COMPOUND
• COMPOUND (from Lat. componere, to combine or put together)

compound of several previously recognized deities, sectarian worship may well be traced right up to the Vedic See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age .

That the theory of the triple manifestation of the deity was indeed only a See also:

• COMPROMISE (pronounced compromize; through Fr. from Lat. compromittere)

compromise between Brahmanical aspirations and popular worship, probably largely influenced by the traditional sanctity of the number three, is sufficiently clear from the fact that, whilst Brahma, the creator, and at the same See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time the very embodiment of Brahmanical class See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride, has practically remained a mere figurehead in the actual worship of the people, Siva, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, so far from being merely the destroyer, is also the unmistakable representative of generative and reproductive' See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power in nature . In fact, Brahma, having performed his legitimate part in the mundane See also:

• EVOLUTION

evolution by his original creation of the universe, has retired into the background, being, as it were, looked upon as funclus officio, like a See also:

• VENERABLE (Lat. venerabilis, worthy of reverence, venerari, to reverence, to worship, allied to Venus, love; the Indo-Germ. root is wen-, to desire, whence Eng. " win, properly to struggle for, hence to gain)

venerable figure of a former See also:

• GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus, stock, race)

generation, whence in epic See also:

• POETRY

poetry he is commonly styled pitamaha, " the grandsire." But despite the artificial See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the Trimurti, it has retained to this See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day at least its theoretical validity in orthodox Hinduism, whilst it has also undoubtedly exercised considerable See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence in shaping sectarian belief, in promoting feelings of See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration towards the claims of See also:

• RIVAL

rival deities; and in a tendency towards identifying divine figures newly sprung into popular favour with one or other of the principal deities, and thus helping to bring into See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

vogue that notion of avatars, or periodical descents or incarnations of the deity, which has become so prominent a feature of the later sectarian belief . Under more favourable See also:

• POLITICAL

political conditions,' the sacerdotal class might perhaps, in course of time, have succeeded in imposing something like an effective common creed on the heterogeneous medley of races and tribes scattered over the See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, just as they certainly did succeed in establishing the social See also:

• PREROGATIVE

prerogative of their own See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order over the length and breadth of India . They were, however, fated to fall far See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of such a consummation; and at all times orthodox Brahmanism has had to wink at, or ignore, all manner of See also:

• GROSS

gross superstitions and repulsive practices, along with the popular worship of countless hosts of godlings, demons, See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits and ghosts, and mystic objects and symbols of every description . Indeed, according to a See also:

• RECENT

recent See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account by a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close observer of the religious practices prevalent in See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern India, fully four-fifths of the people of the See also:

• DRAVIDIAN (Sanskrit Dravida)

Dravidian See also:

• RACE

race, whilst nominally acknowledging the spiritual guidance of the Brahmans, are to this day practically given over to the worship of their nondescript See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• VILLAGE

village deities (grama-devata), usually attended by See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal sacrifices frequently involving the slaughter, under revolting circumstances, of thousands of victims . Curiously enough these local deities are nearly all of the See also:

• FEMALE

female, not the male See also:

• SEX (Lat. sexes; possibly connected with secure, to cut)

sex . In the estimation of these people " Siva and Vishnu may be more dignified beings, but the village deity is regarded as a more present help in trouble, and more intimately concerned with the happiness and prosperity of the villagers . The origin of this form of Hinduism is lost in antiquity, but it is probable that it represents a pre-See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, more or less modified in various parts of See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south India by Brahmanical influence . At the same time, many of the deities themselves are of quite recent origin, and it is easy to observe a deity in making even at the present day." 2 It is a significant fact that, whilst in the worship of Siva and Vishnu, at which no animal sacrifices are offered, the officiating priests are almost invariably Brahmans, this is practically never the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case at the popular performance of those " gloomy and weird See also:

• RITES

rites for the propitiation of angry deities, or the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving away of evil spirits, when the pujaris (or ministrants) are See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from all other castes, even from the Pariahs, the out-caste See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of Indian society." As from the point of view of religious belief, so also from that of social organization no clear See also:

• LINE

line of demarcation can be caste. drawn between Brahmanism and Hinduism . Though it was not till later times that the network of class divisions and subdivisions attained anything like the degree of intricacy which it shows in these latter days, still in its origin the caste-system is undoubtedly coincident with the rise of Brahmanism, and may even be said to be of the very essence of it.3 The See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal principle which underlies the system of caste is the preservation of purity of descent, and purity of religious belief and ceremonial usage . Now, that same principle had been operative from the very See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of the See also:

• HISTORY

history of Aryanized India . The social organism of the Aryan tribe did not probably differ essentially from that of most communities at that See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization; whilst the See also:

• BODY

body of the people—the Vi§ (or aggregate of Vai§yas)—would be mainly occupied with agricultural and See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral pursuits, two professional classes—those of the See also:

• WARRIOR

warrior and the See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest—had already made See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good their claim to social distinction .

As yet, however, the tribal community would still feel one in race and traditional usage . But ' " It is, perhaps, by See also:

• SURVEYING

surveying India that we at this day can best represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast See also:

• EXTERNAL

external reform worked upon the See also:

• HEATHEN

heathen See also:

• WORLD

world by See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, as it was organized and executed throughout See also:

• EUROPE

Europe by the combined authority of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire and the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church Apostolic." See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• ALFRED

Alfred C . See also:

• LYALL
• LYALL, EDNA

Lyall, See also:

• ASIATIC

Asiatic Studies, i . 2 . 2 See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• WHITEHEAD, WILLIAM (1715-1785)

Whitehead, D.D., See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of See also:

• MADRAS

Madras, The Village Deities of Southern India (Madras, 1907) . 1 " The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious basis." Sir A . C . Lyall, Brahmanism.when the See also:

• FAIR

fair-coloured Aryan immigrants first came in contact with, and drove back or subdued the dark-skinned race that occupied the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern plains—doubtless the ancestors of the modern Dravidian people—the preservation of their racial type and traditionary order of things would naturally become to them a See also:

• MATTER

matter of serious concern . In the extreme See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-western districts—the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab and See also:

• RAJPUTANA

Rajputana, judging from the fairly See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical features of the present population of these parts—they seem to have been signally successful in their endeavour to preserve their racial purity, probably by being able to clear a sufficiently extensive See also:

• AREA

area of the original occupants for themselves with their wives and See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle upon . The case was, however, very different in the adjoining valley of the See also:

• JUMNA, or JAMUNA

Jumna and See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges, the sacred Madhyadesa or Middle-See also:

• LAND

land of classical India . Here the Aryan immigrants were not allowed to establish themselves without under-going a considerable admixture of foreign See also:

• BLOOD

blood . It must remain uncertain whether it was that the thickly-populated character of the land scarcely admitted of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete occupation, but only of a See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest by an See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army of fighting men, starting from the Aryanized region—who might, however, subsequently draw See also:

• WOMEN

women of their own See also:

• KIN (0. E. cyn, a word represented in nearly all Teutonic languages, cf. Du. kunne, Dan. and Swed. kon, Goth kuni, tribe; the Teutonic base is kunya; the equivalent Aryan root gan- to beget, produce, is seen in Gr. 'yEvos, Lat. genus, cf. "kind")

kin after them—or whether, as has been suggested, a second Aryan invasion of India took See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place at that time through the mountainous tracts of the upper See also:

• INDUS

Indus and northern See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir, where the nature of the road would render it impracticable for the invading bands to be accompanied by women and children .

Be this as it may, the physical See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of the population of this central region of northern India—Hindustan and See also:

• BEHAR, or BIHAR

Behar—clearly points to an intermixture of the tall, fair-coloured, See also:

• FINE

fine-nosed Aryan with the short-sized, dark-skinned, broad-nosed Dravidian; the latter type becoming more pronounced towards the See also:

• LOWER

lower strata of the social order.' Now, it was precisely in this part of India that mainly arose the body of literature which records the See also:

• GRADUAL (Med. Lat. gradualis, of or belonging to steps or degrees; gradus, step)

gradual rise of the Brahmanical See also:

• HIERARCHY (Gr. iepos, holy, and apxe.v, to rule)

hierarchy and the early development of the caste-system . The problem that now See also:

• LAY

lay before the successful invaders was how to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the indigenous people, probably vastly outnumbering them, without losing their own racial identity . They dealt with them in the way the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white race usually deals with the coloured race—they kept them socially apart . The land being appropriated by the conquerors, husbandry, as the most respectable See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial occupation, became the legitimate calling of the Aryan settler, the Vaisya ; whilst handicrafts, gradually multiplying with advancing civilization and See also:

• MENIAL

menial service, were assigned to the subject race . The generic name applied to the latter was ., zdra, originally probably the name of one of the subjected tribes . So far the social development proceeded on lines hardly differing from those with which one is See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar in the history of other nations . The Indo-See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans, however, went a step farther . What they did was not only to keep the native race apart from social intercourse with them-selves, but to shut them out from all participation in their own higher aims, and especially in their own religious convictions and ceremonial practices . So far from attempting to raise their See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of spiritual See also:

• LIFE

life, or even leaving it to See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary intercourse to gradually bring about a certain community of intellectual culture and religious sentiment, they deliberately set up artificial barriers in order to prevent their own traditional modes of worship from being contaminated with the See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious practices of the servile race . The serf, the Sudra, was not to worship the gods of the Aryan freemen . The result was the system of four castes (See also:

• VARNA

varna, i.e . " See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour "; or jati, " gens ") .

Though the See also:

• BRAHMAN

Brahman, who by this time had firmly secured his supremacy over the kshatriya, or See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble, in matters spiritual as well as in legislative and administrative functions, would naturally be the See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime mover in this regulation of the social ' Thus, in -See also:

• BERAR

Berar, " there is a strong non-Aryan See also:

• LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up)

leaven in the dregs of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused with the general community, while these same races are still distinct tribes in the See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C . Lyall, As . St., i . 6 . order, there seems no See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that the other two upper classes were not equally interested in seeing their hereditary privileges thus perpetuated by divine See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction . Nothing, indeed, is more remarkable in the whole development of the caste-system than the jealous pride which every caste, from the highest to the lowest, takes in its own See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar occupation and See also:

• SPHERE (Gr. vclsa?pa, a ball or globe)

sphere of life . The distinctive badge of a member of the three upper castes was the sacred triple See also:

• CORD (derived through the Fr. corde, from the Lat. chorda, Gr. xop(5rt, the string of a musical instrument)

cord or See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread (sutra)—made of See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, See also:

• HEMP (in O. Eng. henep, cf. Dutch hennep, Ger. Hanf , cognate with Gr. Kavval3er, Lat. cannabis)

hemp or See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool, according to the respective caste—with which he was invested at the upanayana cefemony, or See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation into the use of the sacred savitri, or See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer to the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun (also called gdyatri), constituting his second See also:

• BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages from the root of the verb " to bear ")

birth . Whilst the Arya ,was thus a dvi ja, or twice-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born, the Sudra remained unregenerate during his lifetime, his See also:

• CONSOLATION (Fr. consolation, Lat. consolatio, from consolari, to assuage, comfort, console)

consolation being the See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope that, on the faithful performance of his duties in this life, he might hereafter be born again into a higher grade of life . In later times, the strict adherence to caste duties would naturally receive considerable support from the belief in the transmigration of souls, already prevalent before See also:

• BUDDHA

Buddha's time, and from the very general acceptance of the doctrine of See also:

• KARMA

karma (" See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed "), or retribution, according to which a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's present station and manner of life are the result of the sum-total of his actions and thoughts in his former existence; as his actions here will again, by the same automatic See also:

• PROCESS

process of retribution, determine his status and See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition in his next existence . Though this doctrine is especially insisted upon in Buddhism, and its designation as a specific term (See also:

• PALI

Pali, Kamma) may be due to that creed, the notion itself was doubtless already prevalent in pre-Buddhist times . It would even seem to be necessarily and naturally implied in Brahmanical belief in See also:

• METEMPSYCHOSIS (Gr. µF El.4/1Xco rts)

metempsychosis; whilst in the doctrine of Buddha, who admits no soul, the theory of the See also:

• NET

net result or See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit of a man's actions serving here-after to form or condition the existence of some new individual who will have no conscious identity with himself, seems of a peculiarly artificial and mystic character . But, be this as it may, " the doctrine of karma is certainly one of the firmest beliefs of all classes of Hindus, and the fear that a man shall reap as he has sown is an appreciable See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in theaverage morality .

. . the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of forgiveness is absolutely wanting; evil done may indeed be outweighed by meritorious deeds so far as to ensure a better existence in the future, but it is not effaced, and must be atoned for " (Census Report, i . 364) . In spite, however, of the artificial restrictions placed on the intermarrying of the castes, the mingling of the two races seems to have proceeded at a tolerably rapid See also:

• RATE

rate . Indeed, the paucity of women of the Aryan stock would probably render these mixed unions almost a See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity from the very outset; and the vaunted purity of blood which the caste rules were calculated to perpetuate can scarcely have remained of more than a relative degree even in the case of the Brahman caste . Certain it is that mixed castes are found referred to at a comparatively early period; and at the time of Buddha—some five or six centuries before the Christian era—the social organization would seem to have presented an appearance not so very unlike that of modern times . It must be confessed, however, that our See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information regarding the development of the caste-system is far from complete, especially in its earlier stages . Thus, we are almost entirely See also:

• LEFT

left to conjecture on the important point as to the original social organization of the subject race . Though doubtless divided into different tribes scattered over an extensive tract of land, the subjected See also:

• ABORIGINES

aborigines were slumped together under the designation of Sudras, whose See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty it was to serve the upper classes in all the various departments of See also:

• MANUAL

manual labour, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save those of a downright sordid and degrading character which it was left to vratyas or outcasts to perform . How, then, was the See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution of crafts and habitual occupations of all kinds brought about ? Was the process one of spontaneous growth adapting an already existing social organization to a new order of things; or was it originated and perpetuated by regulation from above ? Or was it rather that the status and duties of existing offices and trades came to be determined and made hereditary by somesuch artificial system as that by which the Theodosian See also:

• CODE (Lat. codex)

Code succeeded for a time in organizing the Roman society in the 5th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century of our era ? "It is well known " (says See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor See also:

• DILL (Anethum or Peucedanum graveolens)

Dill) " that the tendency of the later Empire was to stereotype society, by compelling men to follow the occupation of their fathers, and preventing a See also:

• FREE

free circulation among different callings and grades of life .

The man who brought the See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain from See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa to the public stores at See also:

• OSTIA

Ostia, the See also:

• BAKER, HENRY (1698-1774)
• BAKER, SIR BENJAMIN (1840-1907)
• BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1644/5)
• BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893)
• BAKER, THOMAS (1656-1740)
• BAKER, VALENTINE [BAKER PASHA] (1827-1887)

baker who made it into loaves for distribution, the butchers who brought pigs from Samnium, Lucania or Bruttium, the purveyors of See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine and oil, the men who fed the furnaces of the public See also:

• BATHS

baths, were See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound to their callings from one generation to another . It was the principle of rural See also:

• SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. servus, a servant or slave)

serfdom applied to social functions . Every See also:

• AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come to)

avenue of See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape was closed . A man was bound to his calling not only by his See also:

• FATHER

father's but also by his See also:

• MOTHER

mother's condition . Men were not permitted to marry out of their gild . If the daughter of one of the baker caste married a man not belonging to it, her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband was bound to her father's calling . Not even a See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation obtained by some means from the imperial See also:

• CHANCERY

chancery, not even the power of the Church could avail to break the See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude." It can hardly be gainsaid that these artificial arrangements See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear a very striking See also:

• ANALOGY (Gr. avaXo-yLa, proportion)

analogy to those of the Indian caste-system; and if these class restrictions were comparatively short-lived on See also:

• ITALIAN

Italian ground, it was not perhaps so much that so See also:

• STRANGE, SIR ROBERT (1721-1792)

strange a plant found there an ethnic See also:

• SOIL

soil less congenial to its permanent growth, but because it was not allowed sufficient time to become firmly rooted; for already great political events were impending which within a few decades were to lay the mighty empire in ruins . In India, on the other hand, the institution of caste—even if artificially contrived and imposed by the Indo-Aryan priest and ruler—had at least ample time allowed it to become firmly established in thesocial habits, and even in the affections, of the people . At the same time, one could more easily understand how such a system could have found general acceptance all over the Dravidian region of southern India, with its merest sprinkling of Aryan blood, if it were possible to assume that class arrangements of a similar See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind must have already been prevalent amongst the aboriginal tribes See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to the See also:

• ADVENT (Lat. Adventus, sc. Redemptoris, " the coming of the Saviour ")

advent of the Aryan . Whether a more intimate acquaintance with the See also:

• MANNERS, CHARLES (1857– )

manners and customs of those See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude tribes that have hitherto kept themselves comparatively free from Hindu influences may yet throw some See also:

• LIGHT

light on this question, remains to be seen . But, by this as it may, the institution of caste, when once established, certainly appears to have gone on steadily developing; and not even the See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long period of Buddhist ascendancy, with its uncompromising resistance to the Brahman's claim to being the See also:

• POLE (FAMILY)
• POLE, REGINALD (1500-1558)
• POLE, RICHARD DE LA (d. 1525)
• POLE, WILLIAM (1814—1900)

pole arbiter in matters of faith, seems to have had any very appreciable retardant effect upon the progress of the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement . It was not only by the formation of ever new endogamous castes and sub-castes that the system gained in extent and intricacy, but even more so by the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant subdivision of the castes into numerous exogamous See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups or septs, themselves often involving gradations of social status important enough to seriously affect the possibility of intermarriage, already hampered by various other restrictions .

Thus a man wishing to marry his son or daughter had to look for a suitable match outside his See also:

• SEPT

sept, but within his caste . But whilst for his son he might choose a wife from a lower sept than his own, for his daughter, on the other hand, the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law of hypergamy compelled him, if at all possible, to find a husband in a higher sept . This would naturally See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead to an excess of women over men in the higher septs, and would render it difficult for a man to get his daughter respectably married without paying a high See also:

• PRICE
• PRICE, BARTHOLOMEW (1818–1898)
• PRICE, BONAMY (1807-1888)
• PRICE, RICHARD (1723-1791)

price for a suitable bridegroom and incurring other heavy See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage expenses . It can hardly be doubted that this See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom has been largely responsible for the See also:

• CRIME (Lat. crimen, accusation)

crime of female See also:

• INFANTICIDE

infanticide, formerly so prevalent in India; as it also probably is to some extent for See also:

• INFANT (in early forms enfaunt, enfant, through the Fr. enfant, from Lat. infans, in, not, and fans, the present participle of fari, to speak)

infant marriages, still too common in some parts of India, especially Bengal; and even for the all but universal repugnance to the re-marriage of widows, even when these had been married ix early childhood and had never joined their husbands . Yet violations of these rules are jealously watched by the other members of the sept, and are liable—in accordance with the general custom in which communal matters are regulated in India—to be brought before a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council (panchdyat), originally consisting of five (pancha), but now no longer limited to that number, since it is chiefly the greater or less strictness in the observance of caste rules and the orthodox ceremonial generally that determine the status of the sept in the social See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale of the caste . Whilst community of occupation was an important See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor in the original formation of non-tribal castes, the See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical exigencies of life have led to considerable laxity in this respect—not least so in the case of Brahmans who have often had to take to callings which would seem altogether incompatible with the proper spiritual functions of their caste . Thus, " the See also:

• PREJUDICE (Lat. praejudicium)

prejudice against eating cooked See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food that has been touched by a man of an inferior caste is so strong that, although the Shastras do not prohibit the eating of food cooked by a Kshatriya or Vaisya, yet the Brahmans, in most parts of the country, would not eat such food . For these reasons, every Hindu See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household—whether Brahman, Kshatriya or Sudra —that can afford to keep a paid See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

cook generally entertains the services of a Brahman for the performance of its cuisine—the result being that in the larger towns the very name of Brahman has suffered a strange degradation of See also:

• LATE

late, so as to mean only a cook " (Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya, Hindu Castes and Sects) . In this caste, however, as in all others, there are certain kinds of occupation to which a member could not turn for a livelihood without incurring serious defilement . In fact, adherence to the traditional ceremonial and respectability of occupation go very much hand-in-hand . Thus, amongst agricultural castes, those engaged in See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable-growing or See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market-gardening are inferior to the genuine See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant or See also:

• YEOMAN

yeoman, such as the Jat and See also:

• RAJPUT

Rajput; whilst of these the Jat who practises widow-marriage ranks below the Rajput who prides himself on his tradition of ceremonial orthodoxy—though racially there seems little, if any, difference between the two; and the Rajput, again, is looked down upon by the Babhan of Behar because he does not, like himself, See also:

• SCRUPLE

scruple to handle the plough, instead of invariably employing See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low-caste men for this manual labour . So also when members of the Baidya, or physician, caste of Bengal, ranging next to that of the Brahman, See also:

• FARM

farm land on See also:

• TENURE (Fr. tenure, from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenure, " they will on no account hold the plough, or engage in any form of manual labour, and thus necessarily carry on their cultivation by means of hired servants " (H .

H . Risley, Census Report) . The scale of social See also:

• PRECEDENCE (from Lat. praecedere, to go before, precede)

precedence as recognized by native public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion is concisely reviewed (ib.) as revealing itself " in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be modern representatives of one or other of the original castes of the theoretical Hindu system; that Brahmans will take See also:

• WATER

water from certain castes; that Brahmans of high See also:

• STANDING

standing will serve particular castes; that certain castes, though not served by the best Brahmans, have nevertheless got Brahmans of their own whose See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank varies according to circumstances; that certain castes are not served by Brahmans at all but have priests of their own; that the status of certain castes has been raised by their taking to infant-marriage or abandoning the re-marriage of widows; that the status of others has been modified by their pursuing some occupations in a special or peculiar way; that some can claim the services of the village See also:

• BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard)

barber, the village See also:

• PALANQUIN (pronounced palankeen, a form in which it is sometimes spelled)

palanquin-See also:

• BEARER

bearer, the village See also:

• MIDWIFE (Mid. Eng. midwif, mydwyf or medewife, from preposition mid, with, and wife, i.e. woman, in the sense of one who is with ,the mother, or from adjective mid, one who is the means of delivering the mother, a woman who assists other women in 'childbi

midwife, &c., while others cannot; that some castes may not enter the courtyards of certain temples; that some castes are subject to special taboos, such as that they must not use the village well, or may draw water only with their own vessels, that they must live outside the village or in a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter, that they must leave the road on the approach of a high-caste man and must See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call out to give warning of their approach." " The first point to observe is the predominance throughout India of the influence of the traditional system of four original castes . In every See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme of grouping the Brahman heads the See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list . Then come the castes whom popular opinion accepts as the modern representatives of the Kshatriyas; and these are followed by the See also:

• MERCANTILE (or COMMERCIAL) AGENCIES

mercantile groups supposed to be akin to the Vaisyas . When we leave the higher circles of the twice-born, the difficulty of finding a uniform basis of See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification becomes apparent . The anc ent designation Sudra finds no great favour in modern times, and we can point to no See also:

• GROUP

group that rs generally recognized as representing it . The term is used in Bombay, Madras and Bengal to denote a considerable number of castes of moderate respectability, the higher of whom are considered ' clean ' Sudras, while the precise status of the lower is a question which lends itself to endless controversy." In northern and north-western India, on the other hand, " the grade next below the twice-born rank is occupied by a number of castes from whose hands Brahmans and members of the higher castes will take water and certain kinds of sweetmeats . Below these again is rather an indeterminate group from whom water is taken by some of the higher castes, not by others . Further down, where the test of water no longer applies, the status of the caste depends on the nature of its occupation and its habits in respect of See also:

• DIET

diet . There are castes whose See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch defiles the twice-born, but who do not commit the crowning enormity of eating See also:

• BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis, ox, Gr. f3oiir, which show the ultimate connexion with the Sanskrit go, gaits, ox, and thus with " cow")

beef . . In western and southern Inara the idea that the social See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of a caste depends on whether Brahmans will take water and sweetmeats frcm its members is unknown, for the higher castes will as a See also:

• RULE

rule take water only from persons of their own caste and sub-caste .

In Madras especially the idea of ceremonial pollution by the proximity of an unclean caste has been developed with much elaboration . Thus the table of social precedence attached to the See also:

• COCHIN
• COCHIN, DENYS MARIE PIERRE AUGUSTIN (1851L'Evolution de la vie (1895); Le Monde exterieur (1845); Contre les barbares (1899)

Cochin report shows that while a See also:

• NAYAR, or NAIR

Nayar can pollute a rnan of a higher caste only by touching him, people of the Kammalan group, including masons, blacksmiths, carpenters and workers in See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutoni