See also:

• HYDROMETER (Gr. u"Swp, water, and pErpov, a measure)

HYDROMETER (Gr. u"Swp, See also:

• WATER

water, and pErpov, a measure)  , an See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument for determining the See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of bodies, generally of fluids, but in some cases of solids . When a See also:

• BODY

body floats in a fluid under the See also:

• ACTION

action of gravity, the See also:

• WEIGHT

weight of the body is equal to that of the fluid which it displaces (see See also:

• HYDROMECHANICS (Gr. ubpops avuca)

HYDROMECHANICS) . It is upon this principle that the See also:

• HYDROMETER (Gr. u"Swp, water, and pErpov, a measure)

hydrometer is constructed, and it obviously admits of two modes of application in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of fluids: either we may compare the weights of floating bodies which are capable of displacing the same See also:

• VOLUME

volume of different fluids, or we may compare the volumes of the different fluids which are displaced by the same weight . In the latter case, the densities of the fluids will be inversely proportional to the volumes thus displaced . The hydrometer is said by See also:

• SYNESIUS (c. 373-c. 414)

Synesius Cyreneus in his fifth See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter to have been invented by See also:

• HYPATIA ('Tiraria) (c. A.D. 370–415)

Hypatia at See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria,' but appears to have been neglected until it was reinvented by See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• BOYLE
• BOYLE, JOHN J
• BOYLE, ROBERT (1627-1691)

Boyle, whose " New See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

Essay Instrument," as described in the Phil . Trans. for See also:

• JUNE

June 1675, differs in no essential particular from See also:

• NICHOLSON, HENRY ALLEYNE (1844-1899)
• NICHOLSON, JOHN (1822-18J7)
• NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1753-1815)
• NICHOLSON, WILLIAM (1784-1844)

Nicholson's hydrometer . This instrument was devised for the purpose of detecting counterfeit See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin, especially guineas and See also:

• HALF

half-guineas . In the first See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section of the See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper (Phil . Trans . No . 115, p . 329) the author refers to a See also:

• GLASS
• GLASS (O.E. glees, cf. Ger. Glas, perhaps derived from an old Teutonic root gla-, a variant of glo-, having the general sense of shining, cf. " glare," " glow ")
• GLASS, STAINED

glass instrument exhibited by himself many years before, and " consisting of a bubble furnished with a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long and slender See also:

• STEM (O. Eng. staefn, stemn, cf. Du. stain, Ger. Stamm, &c., probably related to " staff ")

stem, which was to be put into several liquors, to compare and estimate their specific gravities." This seems to be the first reference to the hydrometer in See also:

• MODERN

modern times .

In fig. r C represents the instrument used for guineas, the circular plates A representing plates of See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead, which are used as See also:

• BALLAST (O. Swed. barlast, perhaps from bar, bare or mere, and last, load)

ballast when lighter coins than guineas are examined . B ' In Nicholson's See also:

• JOURNAL
• JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lat. diurnalis, daily)

Journal, iii . 89, See also:

• CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with " denizen," from O. Fr. citeain, mod. Fr. citoyen)

Citizen Eusebe Salverte calls See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the poem " De Ponderibus et Mensuris " generally ascribed to Rhemnius Fannius See also:

• PALAEMON, QUINTUS REMMIUS

Palaemon, and consequently 300 years older than Hypatia, in which the hydrometer is described and attributed to See also:

• ARCHIMEDES (c. 287–212 B.C.)
• ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF

Archimedes . xiv . 6represents " a small glass instrument for estimating the specific gravities of liquors," an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of which was promised by Boyle in the following number of the Phil . Trans., but did not appear . The instrument represented at B (fig . 1), which is copied from Robert Boyle's See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch in the Phil . Trans. for 1675, is generally known as the See also:

• COMMON

common hydrometer . It is usually made of glass, the See also:

• LOWER

lower bulb being loaded with See also:

• MERCURY
• MERCURY (MERCU1uus)
• MERCURY (symbol Hg, atomic weight = 2oo)

mercury or small shot which serves as ballast, causing the instrument to See also:

• FLOAT (in O. Eng. floc and flota, in the verbal form f eotan; the Teutonic root is flut-, another form of flu-, seen in " flow," cf. " fleet "; the root is seen in Gr. a-M e, to sail, Lat. pluere, to rain; the Lat, fluere and fluctus, wave, is not connect

float with the stem See also:

• VERTICAL (from Lat. vertex, highest point)

vertical . The quantity of mercury or shot inserted depends upon the density of the liquids for which the hydrometer is to be employed, it being essential that the whole of the bulb should be immersed in the heaviest liquid for which the instrument is used, while the length and See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of the stem must be such that the hydro-See also:

• METER, ELECTRIC

meter will float in the lightest liquid for which it is required . The stem is usually divided into a number of equal parts, the divisions of the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale being varied in different See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, according to the purposes for which they are employed .

FIG . 1.-Boyle's New Let V denote the volume of the in- Essay Instrument. strument immersed (i.e. of liquid dis- placed) when the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the liquid in which the hydro-meter floats coincides with the lowest See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of the scale, A the See also:

• AREA

area of the transverse section of the stem, 1 the length of a scale division, n the number of divisions on the stern, and W the weight of the instrument . Suppose the successive divisions of the scale to be numbered o, 1, 2 . . . It starting with the lowest, and let wo, w1, See also:

• W2(P — R1)

w2 ... w„ be the weights of unit volume of the liquids in which the hydrometer sinks to the divisions o, 1, 2 . . . n respectively . Then, by the principle of Archimedes, W=Vwo; or wo=W/V . Also W = (V +1A)wi ; or wi =W / (V +IA), wp=W/(V+plA), and w„ =W/(V +nlA), or the densities of the several liquids vary inversely as the respective volumes of the instrument immersed in them; and, since the divisions of the scale correspond to equal increments of volume immersed, it follows that the densities of the several liquids in which the instrument sinks to the successive divisions See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form a See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series . If V = N1A then N expresses the ratio of the volume of the instrument up to the zero of the scale to that of one of the scale-divisions . If we suppose the lower See also:

• PART

part of the instrument replaced by a See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

bar of the same sectional area as the stem and of volume V, the indications of the instrument will be in no respect altered, and the bottom of the bar will be at a- distance of N scale-divisions below the zero of the scale . In this case we have w,,=W/(N+p)lA; or the density of the liquid varies inversely as N+p, that is, as the whole number of scale-divisions between the bottom of the See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube and the See also:

• PLANE

plane of flotation . If we wish the successive divisions of the scale to correspond to equal increments in the density of the corresponding liquids, then the volumes of the instrument, measured up to the successive divisions of the scale, must form a series in harmonical progression, the lengths of the divisions increasing as we go up the stem .

The greatest density of the liquid for which the instrument de-scribed above can be employed is W/V, while the least density is W/(V+n1A), or W/(V+v), where v represents the volume of the stem between the extreme divisions of the scale . Now, by increasing v, leaving W and V unchanged, we may increase the range of the instru. ment indefinitely . But it is clear that if we increase A, the sectional: area of the stem, we shall diminish 1, the length of a scale-division corresponding to a given variation of density, and thereby proportionately diminish the sensibility of the instrument, while diminishing the section A will increase l and proportionately increase the sensibility, but will diminish the range over which the instrument can be employed. unless we increase the length of the stem in the inverse ratio of the sectional area . Hence, to obtain See also:

• GREAT

great sensibility along with a considerable range, we require very long slender stems, and to these two objections apply in addition to the question of portability; for, in the first See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, an instrument with a very long stem requires a very deep See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel of liquid for its See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• IMMERSION (Lat. immersio, dipping),

immersion, and, in the second place, when most of the stem is above II small balls the instrument could be adapted for liquids other than See also:

• WATER

water . To an instrument constructed for the same purpose, but on a still larger scale than that of Desaguliers, A . Deparcieux added a small dish on the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top of the stem for the reception of the weights necessary to sink the instrument to a convenient See also:

• DEPTH

depth . The effect of weights placed in such a dish or See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

pan is of course the same as if they were placed within the bulb of the instrument, since they do not alter the volume of that part which is immersed . The first important improvement in the hydrometer after its reinvention by Boyle was introduced by G . D . See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit, who adopted the second mode of construction above referred to, arranging his instrument so as always to displace the same volume of liquid, its weight being varied accordingly . Instead of a scale, only a single See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark is placed upon the stem, which is very slender, and bears at the top a small scale pan into which weights are placed until the instrument sinks to the mark upon its stem . The volume of the displaced liquid being then always the same, its density will be proportional to the whole weight supported, that is, to the weight of the instrument together with the weights required to be placed in the scale pan .

Nicholson's hydrometer (fig.3) combines the characteristics of Fahrenheit's hydrometer and of Boyle's essay instrument.' The following is the description given of it by W . Nicholson in the See also:

• MANCHESTER
• MANCHESTER (popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea)
• MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF

Manchester See also:

• MEMOIRS

Memoirs, ii . 374: " AA represents a small scale . It may be taken off at D . Diameter 11 in., weight 44 grains . B a stem of hardened See also:

• STEEL, FLORA ANNIE (1847– )

steel See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire . Diameter i up _in . " E a hollow See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper globe . Diameter s& in . Weight with stem 369 grains . FF' a See also:

• STIRRUP (O. Eng. slirap, stigrap, M. Eng. stirop,styrope,&c.,i.e. a mounting or climbing-rope; O. Eng. stigan, to mount, climb, and rap, rope, cf. Du. stijbeugel, literally mounting bow or loop, Ger. Steigbugel)

stirrup of 'wire screwed to the globe at C . "G a small scale, serving likewise as a counterpoise .

Diameter in . Weight with stirrup 1634 grains . "The other dimensions may be had from the, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing, which is one-See also:

• SIXTH

sixth of the linear magnitude of the instrument itself . " In the construction it is assumed that the upper scale shall constantly carry moo grains when the lower scale is empty, and the instrument sunk in distilled water at the temperature of 6o° Fahr. to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the wire or stem . The length of the stem is arbitrary, as is likewise the distance of the lower scale from the surface of the globe . But, the length of the stem being settled, the lower scale may be made lighter, and, consequently, the globe less, the greater its distance is taken from the surface of the globe; and the contrary . s the plane of flotation, the stability of the instrument when floating will be diminished or destroyed . The various devices which have been adopted to overcome this difficulty will be described in the account given of the several hydrometers which have been hitherto generally employed . The See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan commonly adopted to obviate the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of inconveniently long stems is to construct a number of hydrometers as nearly alike as may be, but to load them differently, sd that the scale-divisions at the bottom of the stem of one hydrometer just overlap those at the top of the stem of the preceding . By this means a set of six hydrometers, each having a stem rather more than S in. long, will be See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent to a single hydrometer with a stem of 30 in . But, instead of employing a number of instruments differing only in the weights with which they are loaded, we may employ the same instrument, and alter its weight either by adding mercury or shot to the interior (if it can be opened) or by attaching weights to the ex-See also:

• TENOR (through Fr. and It. from Lat. tenor, holding on, course, sense of a law, tone)

tenor . These two operations are not quite equivalent, since a weight added to the interior does not affect the volume of liquid displaced when the instrument is immersed up to a given division of the scale, while the addition of-weights to the exterior increases the displacement .

This difficulty may be met, as in See also:

• KEENE
• KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL (1823–1891)
• KEENE, LAURA (c. 1820-1873)

Keene's hydrometer, by having all the weights of precisely the same volume but of different masses, and never using the instrument except with one of these weights attached . The first hydrometer intended for the determination of the densities of liquids, and furnished with a set of weights to. be attached when necessary, was that See also:

• CON

con- structed by Mr See also:

• CLARKE, ADAM (1762?—1832)
• CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877)
• CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769–1822)
• CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810–1888)
• CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833–1899)
• CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846–1881)
• CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c.1776–1852)
• CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675–1729)
• CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902)
• CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841– )
• CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1866- )
• CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878)

Clarke (instrument-maker) and described by J . T . Desaguliers in the Philosophical Transactions for See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March and See also:

• APRIL

April 1730, No . 413, p . 278 . The following is Desaguliers's account of the instrument (fig . 2) : " After having made several fruitless trials with See also:

• IVORY (Fr. ivoire, Lat. ebur)
• IVORY, SIR JAMES (1765-1842)

ivory, because it imbibes spirituous liquors, and thereby alters its gravity, he (Mr Clarke) at last made a copper hydrometer, represented in fig . 2, having a See also:

• BRASS
• BRASS (O. Eng. braes)

brass wire of about i in. thick going through, and soldered into the copper See also:

• BALL (in Mid. Eng. bal; the word is probably cognate with " bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. falls, and Gr. 7raXXa)
• BALL, JOHN (1585-1640)
• BALL, JOHN (1818-1889)
• BALL, JOHN (d. 1381)
• BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART
• BALL, THOMAS (1819- )

ball Bb . The upper part of this wire is filed See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat on one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side, for the stem of the hydrometer, with a mark at m, to which it sinks exactly in ®, See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof See also:

• SPIRITS

spirits . There are two other marks, A and B, at top and bottom of the stem, to show whether the liquor be i 0th above proof (as when FIG . 2.–Clarke's it sinks to A), or nth under proof (as when it Hydrometer. emerges to B), when a brass weight such as C has been screwed on to the bottom at c .

There are a great many such weights, of different sizes, and marked to be screwed on instead of C, for liquors that differ more than 1th from proof, so as to serve for the specific gravities in all such proportions as relate to the mixture of spirituous liquors, in all the variety made use of in See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . There are also other balls for showing the specific gravities quite to common water, which make the instrument perfect in its See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind." Clarke's hydrometer, as afterwards constructed for the purposes of the See also:

• EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, excijs or accijs, possibly from Late Lat. accensare,—ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something to a confusion with excisum, cut out)

excise, was provided with See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-two weights to adapt it to spirits of different specific gravities, and eleven smaller weights, or " See also:

• WEATHER (O. Eng. weder; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Du. weder, Dan. veir, Icel. ve8r, and Ger. Wetter and Gewitter, storm; the root is wa- to blow, from which is derived " wind ")

weather weights " as they were called, which were attached to the instrument in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to correct for See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations of temperature . The weights were adjusted for successive intervals of 50 F., but for degrees intermediate between these no additional correction was applied . The correction for temperature thus afforded was not sufficiently accurate for excise purposes, and See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Speer in his essay on the hydrometer (Tilloch's Phil . Meg., 18o2, vol. xiv.) mentions cases in which this imperfect See also:

• COMPENSATION (from Lat. compensare, to weigh one thing against another)

compensation led to the extra See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty payable upon spirits which were more than 10 70 over proof being demanded on spirits which were purposely diluted to below ro°s over proof in order to avoid the See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge . Clarke's hydrometer, however, remained the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard instrument for excise purposes from 1787 until it was displaced by that of Sikes . Desaguliers himself constructed a hydrometer of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary type for comparing the specific gravities of different kinds of water (Desaguliers's Experimental See also:

• PHILOSOPHY (Gr. gthos, fond of, and vo4 (a, wisdom)

Philosophy, ii . 234) . In order to give great sensibility to the instrument, the large glass ball was made nearly 3 in. in diameter, while the stem consisted of a wire to in. in length and only in.indiameter . The instrument weighed 4000 grains, and the addition of a See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain caused it to sink through an See also:

• INCH (O. Eng. ynce from Lat. uncia, a twelfthpart; cf. " ounce," and see As)

inch . By altering the quantity of shot in the In comparing the densities of different liquids, it is clear that this instrument is precisely equivalent to that of Fahrenheit, and must be employed in the same manner, weights being placed in the top scale only until the hydrometer sinks to the mark on the wire, when the specific gravity of the liquid will be proportional to the weight of the instrument together with the weights in the scale . In the subsequent portion of the paper above referred to, Nicholson explains how the instrument may be employed as a thermometer, since, fluids generally expanding more than the solids of which the instrument is constructed, the instrument will sink as the temperature rises .

To determine the density of solids heavier than water with . this instrument, let the solid be placed in the upper scale pan, and let the weight now required to cause the instrument to sink in distilled water at standard temperature to the mark B be denoted by w, while W denotes the weight required when the solid is not See also:

• PRESENT

present . Then W–w is the weight of the solid . Now let the solid be placed In the lower pan, care being taken that no bubbles of See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air remain attached to it, and let w, be the weight now required in the scale pan" This weight will exceed w in consequence of the water displaced by the solid, and the weight of the water thus displaced will be w,–w, which is therefore the weight of a volume of water equal to that of the solid . Hence, since the weight of the solid itself is W–w, its density must be (W–w)/(w,w) . The above example illustrates how Nicholson's or Fahrenheit's hydrometer may he employed as a weighing See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine for small weights . In all hydrometers in which a part only of the instrument .Vv holism's Journal, vol. i. p . I 1 i, footnote . is immersed, there is a liability to See also:

• ERROR (Lat. error, from errare, to wander, to err)

error in cbnsequence of the surface tension, or capillary action, as it is frequently called, along the See also:

• LINE

line of contact of the instrument and the surface of the liquid (see CAPILLARY ACTION) . This error diminishes as the diameter of the stem is reduced, but is sensible in the case of the thinnest stem which can be employed, and is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief source of error in the employment of Nicholson's hydrometer, which otherwise would be an instrument of extreme delicacy and precision . The following is Nicholson's statement on this point: " One of the greatest difficulties which attends hydrostatical experiments arises from the attraction or repulsion that obtains at the surface of the water . After trying many experiments to obviate the irregularities arising from this cause, I find See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to prefer the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple one of carefully wiping the whole instrument, and especially the stem, with a clean See also:

• CLOTH

cloth . The weights in the dish must not be esteemed accurate while there is either a cumulus or a cavity in the water See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the stem." It is possible by applying a little oil to the upper part of the bulb of a common or of a Sikes's hydrometer, and carefully placing it in pure water, to cause it to float with the upper part of the bulb and the whole of the stem emerging as indicated in fig .

4, when it ought properly to sink almost to the top of the stem, the surface tension of the water around the circumference of the circle of contact, AA', providing the additional support required . The universal hydrometer of G . Atkins, described in the Phil . Mag. for i8o8, xxxi . 254, is merely Nicholson's hydro-meter with the See also:

• SCREW (O.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escroue, mod. ecrou; ultimate origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularl

screw at C projecting through the See also:

• COLLAR

collar into which it is screwed, and terminating in a See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp point above the See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup G . To this point soft bodies lighter than water (which would float if placed in the cup) could be attached, and thus completely immersed . Atkins's instrument was constructed so as to weigh 700 grains, and when immersed to the mark on the stem in distilled water at 60° F. it carried 300 grains in the upper dish . The hydrometer therefore displaced moo grains of distilled water at 6o°F.and hence the specific gravity of any other liquid was at once indicated pan required to make the instrument sink to the mark on the stem . The small divisions on the scale corresponded to See also:

• DIFFERENCES, CALCULUS OF (Theory of Finite Differences)

differences of ;oth of a grain in the weight of the instrument . The " Gravimeter," constructed by Citizen Guyton and described in Nicholson's Journal, 4to, 1 . 110, differs from Nicholson's instrument in being constructed of glass, and having a cylindrical bulb about 21 centimetres in length and 22 millimetres in diameter . Its weight is so adjusted that an additional weight of 5 grammes must be placed in the upper pan to cause the instrument to sink to the mark on the stem in distilled water at the standard temperature .

The instrument is provided with an additional piece, or " plongeur;" the weight of which exceeds 5 grammes by the weight of water which it displaces; that is to say, it is so constructed as to weigh 5 grammes in water, and consists of a glass envelope filled with mercury . It is clear that the effect of this " plongeur," when placed in the lower pan, is exactly the same as that of the 5 gramme weight in the upper pan . Without the extra 5 grammes the instrument weighs about 20 grammes, and therefore floats in a liquid of specific gravity •8 . Thus deprived of its additional weight it may be used for spirits . To use the instrument for liquids of much greater density than water additional weights must be placed in the upper pan, and the " plongeur " is then placed in the lower pan for the purpose of giving to the instrument the requisite stability . See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles's See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance areometer is similar to Nicholson's hydrometer, except that the lower See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin admits of See also:

• INVERSION (Lat. invertere, to turn about)

inversion, thus enabling the instrument to be employed for solids lighter than water, the inverted basin serving the same purpose as the pointed screw in Atkins's modification of the instrument . Adie's sliding hydrometer is of the ordinary form, but can be adjusted for liquids of widely differing specific gravities by drawing out a sliding tube, thus changing the volume of the hydrometer while its weight remains See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant . The hydrometer of A . See also:

• BAUME, ANTOINE (1728-1894)

Baume, which has been extensively used in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, consists of a common hydrometer graduated in the following manner . Certain fixed points were first determined upon the stem of the instrument . The first of these was found by immersing the hydrometer in pure water, and marking the stem at the level of the surface . This formed the zero of the scale .

Fifteen standard solutions of pure common See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt in water were then prepared, contain-See also:

• ING

ing respectively I, 2, 3, . . . 15% (by weight) of dry salt . The hydrometer was plunged in these solutions in order, and the stem having been marked at the several surfaces, the degrees so obtained were numbered I, 2, 3, . . . 15 . These degrees were, when necessary, repeated along the stem by the employment of a pair of compasses till 8o degrees were marked off . The instrument thus adapted to the determination of densities exceeding that of water was called the hydrometer for salts . The hydrometer intended for densities less than that of water, or the hydrometer for spirits, is constructed on a similar principle . The instrument is so arranged that it floats in pure water with most of the stem above the surface . A See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution containing to% of pure salt is used to indicate the zero of the scale, and the point at which the instrument floats when immersed in distilled water at to° R . (54° F.) is numbered to .

Equal divisions are then marked off upwards along the stem as far as the 5oth degree . The densities corresponding to the several degrees of Baume's hydrometer are given by Nicholson (Journal of Philosophy, i . 89) as follows : Baume's Hydrometer for Spirits . Temperature See also:

• ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581—1644)
• ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888)

roe R . Degrees . Density . Degrees . Density . Degrees . Density . 10 I•000 21 •922 31 •861 11 .990 22 '915 32 .856 12 .985 23 .909 33 .852 13 '977 24 '903 34 '847 14 .970 25 .897 35 .842 15 .963 26 •892 36 .837 16 '955 27 •886 37 •832 17 '949 28 •88o 38 .827 r8 '943 29 '874 39 •822 19 '935 30 •867 40 .817 20 •928 Baume's Hydrometer for Salts . Degrees .

Density . Degrees . Density . Degrees . Density . o I.000 27 1.230 51 1.547 3 P020 30 1.261 54 1'594 6 1.040 33 1.295 57 1.659 9 1.064 36 1.333 6o I 1.717 12 1.089 39 1.373 63 1'779 15 1.114 42 1.414 66 1.848 18 I•140 45 1.455 69 1.920 21 1.170 48 1.500 72 2.000 24 I.200 See also:

• CARTIER, JACQUES (149.1-'1557)
• CARTIER, SIR GEORGES ETIENNE

Cartier's hydrometer was very similar to that of Baume, Cartier having been employed by the latter to construct his instruments for the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue . The point at which the instrument floated in distilled water was marked Io° by Cartier, and 30° on Cartier's scale corresponded to 32° on Baume's . Perhaps the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• OBJECT

object for which hydrometers have been constructed is the determination of the value of spirituous liquors, chiefly for revenue purposes . To this end an immense variety of hydrometers have been devised, differing mainly in the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of their scales . In Speer's hydrometer the stem has the form of an octagonal See also:

• PRISM (Gr. rrpivµa, properly a thing sawn, Irpii"ety, to saw)

prism, and upon each of the eight faces a scale is engraved, indicating the percentage strength of the spirit corresponding to the several divisions of the scale, the eight • scales being adapted respectively to the temperature 35°, 40° 450, 50°, 55 , 60°, 65° and 70° F . Four small pins, which can be inserted into the counterpoise of the instrument, serve to adapt the instrument to the temperatures intermediate between those for which the scales are constructed . William Speer was supervisor and chief assayer of spirits in the See also:

• PORT

port of See also:

• DUBLIN

Dublin .

For a more complete account of this instrument see Tilloch's Phil . Mag., xiv . 151 . The hydrometer constructed by See also:

• JONES
• JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (1824-1906)
• JONES, EBENEZER (182o-186o)
• JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1819-1869)
• JONES, HENRY (1831-1899)
• JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- )
• JONES, INIGO (1573-1651)
• JONES, JOHN (c. 1800-1882)
• JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649)
• JONES, OWEN (1741-1814)
• JONES, OWEN (1809-1874)
• JONES, RICHARD (179o-1855)
• JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1845-1909)
• JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1746-1794)
• JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1819– )
• JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800)

Jones, of HoI-See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born, consists of a spheroidal bulb with a rectangular stem (fig . 5) . Between the bulb and counterpoise is placed a thermometer, which serves to indicate the temperature of the liquid, and the instrument is provided with three weights which can be attached to the top of the stem . On the four sides of the stem AD are engraved four scales corresponding respectively to the unloaded FIG . 5.—Jones's instrument, and to the instrument loaded with the Hydrometer. respective weights . The instrument when unloaded serves for the range from 74 to 47 over proof ; when loaded with the first weight it indicates from 46 to 13 over proof, with the second weight from 13 over proof to 29 under proof, and with the third from 29 under proof to pure water, the See also:

• GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE)

graduation corresponding to which is marked W at the bottom of the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth scale . One side of the stem AD is shown in fig . 5, the other three in fig . 6 .

The thermo- meter is also provided with four scales corresponding to the scales above mentioned . Each scale has its zero in the middle corresponding to 6o° F . If the mercury in the thermo- 01 meter stand above this zero the spirit must O O be reckoned weaker than the hydrometer indicates by the number on the thermometer scale level with the top of the mercury, while if the thermometer indicate a temperature lower than the zero of the scale (60° F.) the spirit must be reckoned stronger by the scale See also:

• READING

reading . At the side of each of the four scales on the stem of the hydrometer is en-graved a set of small See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers indicating the contraction in volume which would be experienced if the requisite amount of water (or spirit) were added to bring the See also:

• SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum; a doublet of " example ")

sample tested to the proof strength . The hydrometer constructed by Dicas of See also:

• LIVERPOOL
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS
• LIVERPOOL, EARLS OF

Liverpool is provided with a sliding scale which which also indicates the contraction in volume incident on bringing the spirit to proof strength . It is provided with thirty-six different weights which, with the ten divisions on the stern, form a scale from o to 370 . The employment of so many weights renders the instrument See also:

• ILL

ill-adapted for See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical See also:

• WORK

work where See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed is an object . This instrument was adopted by the See also:

• UNITED

United States in 1790, but was subsequently discarded by the See also:

• INTERNAL

Internal Revenue Service for another type . In this latter form the observations have to be made at the standard temperature of 6o° F., at which the graduation too corresponds to proof spirit and zoo to See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute See also:

• ALCOHOL

alcohol . The need of adjustable weights is avoided by employing a set of five instruments, graduated respectivelyo°-See also:

• IOO

ioo°, 8o -120°, Ioo°-140°, 130°-170°, 160°-2oo° . The reading gives the volume of proof spirit equivalent to the volume of liquor; thus the readings 8o° and 12o° mean that too volumes of the test liquors contain the same amount of absolute alcohol as 8o and 120 volumes of proof spirit respectively . Proof spirit is defined in the United States as a mixture of alcohol and water which contains equal volumes of alcohol and water at 6o° F., the alcohol having a specific gravity of 0.7939 at 6o° as compared with water at its maximum density .

The specific gravity of proof spirit is 0.93353 at 600; and See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo volumes of the mixture is made from 50 volumes of absolute alcohol and 53.71 volumes of water . See also:

• QUIN, JAMES (1693—1766)

Quin's universal hydrometer is described in the Transactions of the Society of Arts, viii . 98 . It is provided with a sliding See also:

• RULE

rule to adapt it to different temperatures, and has four scales, one of which is graduated for spirits and the other three serve to show the strengths of worts . The peculiarity of the instrument consists in the pyramidal form given to the stem, which renders the scale-divisions more nearly equal in length than they would be on a prismatic stem . Atkins's hydrometer, as originally constructed, is described in Nicholson's Journal, 8vo, ii . 276 . It is made of brass, and is provided with a spheroidal bulb the See also:

• AXIS (Lat. for " axle ")

axis of which is 2 in. in length, the conjugate diameter being 11 in . The whole length of the instrument is 8 in., the stem square of about side, and the weight about 400 grains . It is provided with four weights, marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and weighing respectively 20, 40, 61 and 84 grains, which can be attached to the shank of the instrument at C (fig . 7) and retained there by the fixed weight B . The scale engraved upon one See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the stem contains fifty-five divisions, the top and bottom being marked o or zero and the alternate intermediate divisions (of which there are twenty-six) being marked with the letters of the See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet in order .

The four weights are so adjusted that, if the instrument floats with the stem emerging as far as the lower division o with one of the weights attached. then replacing the weight by the next heavier causes the instrument to sink through the whole length of the scale to the upper division o, and the first weight produces the same effect when applied to the naked instrument . The stem is thus virtually extended to five times its length, and the number of divisions in-creased practically to 272 . When no weight is attached the instrument indicates densities from •8o6 to •843; with No . 1 it registers from •843 to •88o, with No . 2 from •88o to •918, with No . 3 from .918 to •958, and with No . 4 from •958 to 1 •000, the temperature being 55° F . It will thus be seen that the whole length of the stem corresponds to a difference of density of about .04, and one division to about .000i4, indicating a difference of little more than a % in the strength of any sample of spirits . The instrument is provided with a sliding rule, with scales corresponding to the several weights, which indicate the specific gravity corresponding to the, several divisions of the hydrometer scale compared with water at 55° F . The slider upon the rule serves to adjust the scale for different temperatures, and then indicates the strength of the spirit in percentages over or under proof . The slider is also provided with scales, marked respectively Dicas and Clarke, which serve to show the readings which would have been obtained had the instruments of those makers been employed . The line on the scale marked " concentration " indicates the diminution in volume consequent upon reducing the sample to proof strength (if it is over proof, O.P.) or upon reducing proof spirit to the strength of the sample (if it is under proof, U.P.) .

By applying the several weights in See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession in addition to No . 4 the instrument can be employed for liquids heavier than water; and graduations on the other three sides of the stem, together with an additional slide rule, adapt the instrument for the determination of the strength of worts . Atkins subsequently modified the instrument (Nicholson's Journal, 8vo, iii . 5o) by constructing the different weights of different shapes, viz. circular, square, triangular and pentagonal, instead of numbering them 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, a figure of the weight being stamped on the sliding rule opposite to every letter in the series to which it belongs, thus diminishing the See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of mistakes . He also replaced the letters on the stem by the corresponding specific gravities referred to water as unity . Further See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information concerning these instruments and the See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of hydro, metry in 1803 will be found in Atkins's pamphlet On the Relation between the Specific Gravities and the Strength of Spirituous Liquors (1803); or Phil . Mag. xvi . 26-33, 205-212, 305-312; xvii . 204-21Q and 329-341 . In See also:

• GAY, JOHN (1685-1732)
• GAY, MARIE FRANCOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852)
• GAY, WALTER (1856– )

Gay-Lussac's alcoholometer the scale is divided into loo parts corresponding to the presence of 1, 2, ... % by volume of alcohol at 15° C., the highest division of the scale corresponding to the purest alcohol he could obtain (density .7947) and the lowest division corresponding to pure water . A table provides the necessary corrections for other temperatures .

See also:

• TRALLES (mod. Giizel Hisser)

Tralles's hydrometer differs from Gay-Lussac's only in being graduated at 4° C. instead of 15° C., and taking alcohol of density .7939 at 15.5° C. for pure alcohol instead of .7947 as taken by Gay Lussac (Keene's Handbook of Hydrometry) . In See also:

• BECK (or BEEK), DAVID (1621—1656)
• BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (1757-1832)
• BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND (1761-1840)

Beck's hydrometer the zero of the scale corresponds to density 1•000 and the division 30 to density •85o, and equal divisions on the scale are continued as far as is required in both directions . In the centesimal hydrometer of Francceur the volume of the stem between successive divisions of the scale is always i See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath of the whole volume immersed when the instrument floats in water at 4° C . In order to See also:

• GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduale, to admit to an academical degree, gradus)

graduate the stem the instrument is first weighed, then immersed in distilled water at 4° C., and the line of flotation marked zero . The first degree is then found by placing on the top of the stem a weight equal to 1 th of the weight of the instrument, which in-creases the volume immersed by both of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original volume . The addition to the top of the stem of successive weights, each 1 u o th of the weight of the instrument itself, serves to determine the successive degrees . The length of 100 divisions of the scale, or the length of the uniform stem the volume of which would be equal to that of the hydrometer up to the zero graduation, Francceur called the " modulus " of the hydrometer . He constructed his instruments of glass, using different instruments for different portions of the scale (Francceur, Traite d'areometrie, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1842) . Dr Bories of See also:

• MONTPELLIER

Montpellier constructed a hydro-meter which was based upon the results of his experiments on mixtures of alcohol and water . The See also:

• INTERVAL

interval between the points corresponding to pure alcohol and to pure water Bories divided into loo equal parts, though the stem was See also:

• PRO

pro- FIG . 8.-Sikes's longed so as to contain only to of these divisions, Hydrometer. the other 90 being provided for by the addition of 9 weights to the bottom of the instrument as in Clarke's hydrometer . The instrument which has now been exclusively used for revenue purposes for nearly a See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century is that associated with the name of See also:

• BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893)
• BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT

Bartholomew Sikes, who was correspondent to the See also:

• BOARD (O. Eng. bord)

Board of Excise from 1774 to 1783, and for some See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time See also:

• COLLECTOR

collector of excise for See also:

• HERTFORD
• HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF

Hertford-See also:

• SHIRE

shire .

Sikes's hydrometer, on account of its similarity to that of Bories, appears to have been borrowed from that instrument . It is made of gilded brass or See also:

• SILVER

silver, and consists of a spherical ball A (fig . 8), 1.5 in. in diameter, below which is a weight B connected with the ball by a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short conical stem C . The stem D is rectangular in section and about 31 in. in length . This is divided into ten equal parts, each of which is subdivided into five . As in Bories's instrument, a series of 9 weights, each of the form shown at E, serves to extend the scale Hydrometer . Sikes's scale having been taken as corresponding to equal increments of density . Sikes's hydrometer was established for the purpose of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting the revenue of the United See also:

• KINGDOM

Kingdom by See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act of See also:

• PARLIAMENT (Anglo-Lat. parliamentum, Fr. parlement, from parler, to speak)

Parliament, 56 Geo . III. c . 140, by which it was enacted that " all spirits shall be deemed and taken to be of the degree of strength which the said hydrometers called Sikes's hydrometers shall, upon trial by any officer or See also:

• OFFICERS

officers bf the customs or excise, denote such spirits to be." This act came into force on See also:

• JANUARY

January 5, 1817, and was to have remained in force until See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1, 1818, but was repealed by 58 Geo . III. c.28, which established Sikes's hydrometer on a permanent footing . By 3 and 4 Will .

1V. c . 52, § 123, it was further enacted that the same instruments and methods should be employed in determining the duty upon imported spirits as should in virtue of any Act of Parliament be einployed in the determination of the duty upon spirits distilled at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home . It is the practice of the officers of the inland revenue to adjust Sikes's hydrometer at 62° F., that being the temperature at which the imperial See also:

• GALLON

gallon is defined as containing to lb See also:

• AVOIRDUPOIS

avoirdupois of distilled water . The specific gravity of any sample of spirits thus determined, when multiplied by ten, gives the weight in pounds per imperial gallon, and the weight of any hulk of spirits divided by this number gives its volume at once in imperial gallons . Mr (afterwards See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel) J . B . Keene, of the Hydrometer See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office, See also:

• LONDON

London, has constructed an instrument after the See also:

• MODEL (0. Fr. modelle, mod. modele; It. modello, pattern, mould; from Lat. modus, measure, standard)

model of Sikes's, but provided with twelve weights of different masses but equal volumes, and the instrument is never used without having one of these attached . When loaded with either of the lightest two weights the instrument is specifically lighter than Sikes's hydrometer when unloaded, and it may thus be used for specific gravities as See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low as that of absolute alcohol . The volume of each weight being the same, the whole volume immersed is always the same when it floats at the same mark whatever weight may be attached . Besides the above, many hydrometers have been employed for See also:

• SPECIAL

special purposes . Twaddell's hydrometer is adapted for densities greater than that of water . The scale is so arranged that the reading multiplied by 5 and added to 3000 gives the specific gravity with reference to water as loon .

To avoid an inconveniently long stem, different instruments are employed for different parts of the scale as mentioned above . The lactometer constructed by Dicas of Liverpool is adapted for the determination of the quality of See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk . It resembles Sikes's hydrometer in other respects, but is provided with eight weights . It is also provided with a thermometer and slide rule, to reduce the readings to the standard temperature of 55° F . Any determination of density can be taken only as affording prima facie See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the quality of milk, as the removal of cream and the addition of water are operations which tend to compensate each other in their See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the density of the liquid, so that the lactometer cannot be regarded as a reliable instrument . The marine hydrometers, as supplied by the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government to the royal See also:

• NAVY

navy and the See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant marine, are glass instruments with slender stems, and generally serve to indicate specific gravities from 1.000 to 1.040 . Before being issued they are compared with a standard instrument, and their errors determined . They are employed for taking observations of the density of See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-water . The salinometer is a hydrometer originally intended to indicate the strength of the brine in marine boilers in which sea-water is employed . Saunders's salinometer consists of a hydrometer which floats in a chamber through which the water from the See also:

• BOILER

boiler is allowed to flow in a See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle stream, at a temperature of 200° F . The peculiarity of the instrument consists in the stream of water, as it enters the hydrometer chamber, being made to impinge against a disk of See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal, by which it is broken into drops, thus liberating the See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam, which would otherwise disturb the instrument . The use of Sikes's hydrometer necessitates the employment of a considerable quantity of spirit .

For the testing of spirits in bulk no more convenient instrument has been devised, but where very small quantities are available more suitable laboratory methods must be adopted . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, the See also:

• FINANCE

Finance Act 1907 (7 Ed . VII. c . 13), section 4, provides as follows: (I) The Commissioners of Customs and the Commissioners of Inland Revenue may jointly make regulations authorizing the use of any means described in the regulations for ascertaining for any purpose the strength or weight of spirits . (2) Where under any enactment Sykes's (sic) Hydrometer is directed to be used or may be used for the purpose of ascertaining the strength or weight of spirits, any means so authorized by regulations may be used instead of Sykes's_Hydrometer and reference's to Sykes's Hydro-meter in any enactment shall be construed accordingly . (3) Any regulations made under this section shall be published in the London, See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh and Dublin See also:

• GAZETTE

Gazette, and shall take effect from the date of publication, or such later date as may be mentioned in the regulations for the purpose . (4) The expression " spirits " in this section has the same meaning as in the Spirits Act 1880 . (W .