HYMNS  .— 1 . Classical Hymnody.— The word " hymn " (ii,uvos) was employed by the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient Greeks' to signify a See also:

• SONG

song or poem composed in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of gods, heroes or famous men, or to be recited on some joyful, mournful or See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn occasion . Polymnia was the name of their lyric muse . See also:

• HOMER, WINSLOW (1836-191o)

Homer makes See also:

• ALCINOUS
• ALCINOUS (ALKINoos)

Alcinous entertain See also:

• ODYSSEUS (in Latin Ulixes, incorrectly written Ulysses)

Odysseus with a " hymn " of the See also:

• MINSTREL

minstrel Demodocus, on the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• TROY
• TROY, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1679–1752)

Troy by the wooden See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse . The See also:

• WORKS

Works and Days of See also:

• HESIOD

Hesiod begins with an invocation to the See also:

• MUSES, THE (Gr. Mo6o-at, the thinkers)

Muses to address hymns to See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus, and in his Theogonia he speaks of them as singing or inspiring " hymns " to all the divinities, and of the See also:

• BARD

bard as " their servant, hymning the glories of men of old, and of the gods of See also:

• OLYMPUS

Olympus." See also:

• PINDAR (Gr. HivSapos, c. 522–443 B.c.)

Pindar calls by this name odes, like his own, in praise of conquerors at the public See also:

• GAMES, CLASSICAL

games of See also:

• GREECE

Greece . The Athenian dramatists (See also:

• EURIPIDES (48o–4o6 B.C.)

Euripides most frequently) use the word and its cognate verbs in a similar manner; they also describe by them metrical oracles and apophthegms, See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial, festal and hymeneal songs, dirges and See also:

• LAMENTATIONS (Lamentations of Jeremiah)

lamentations or incantations of woe . Hellenic hymns, according to this conception of them, have come down to us, some from a very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early and others from a See also:

• LATE

late See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek classical literature . Those which passed by the name of Homer2 were already old in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of See also:

• THUCYDIDES (OovavMns)

Thucydides . They are mythological poems (several of them See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long), in See also:

• HEXAMETER

hexameter See also:

• VERSE (from Lat. versus, literally a line or furrow drawn by turning the plough, from vertere, and afterwards signifying an arrangement of syllables into feet)

verse—some very interesting . That to See also:

• APOLLO (Gr. 'A2r6XXwv,'Airkkhwv)

Apollo contains a traditionary See also:

• HISTORY

history of the origin and progress of the Delphic See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship; those on See also:

• HERMES
• HERMES, GEORG (1775-1831)

Hermes and on See also:

• DIONYSUS (probably = " son of Zeus," from & Os and vv(7os, a Thracian word for " son ")

Dionysus are marked by much liveliness and poetical See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy . Hymns of a like See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character, but of less See also:

• INTEREST

interest (though these also embody some See also:

• FINE

fine poetical traditions of the Greek See also:

• MYTHOLOGY

mythology, such as the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story ' The history of the " hymn " naturally begins with Greece, but it may be found in some See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form much earlier; See also:

• ASSYRIA

Assyria and See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt have See also:

• LEFT

left specimens, while See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India has the Vedic hymns, and See also:

• CONFUCIUS [K'ung tsze] (550 or 551-478 B.C.)

Confucius collected " praise songs " in See also:

• CHINA

China . 2 See GREEK LITERATURE.of See also:

• TEIRESIAS

Teiresias, and that of the wanderings of Leto), were written in the 3rd See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century before See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, by See also:

• CALLIMACHUS

Callimachus of See also:

• CYRENE [mod. Ain Shahat-Grenna]

Cyrene .

See also:

• CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.)

Cleanthes, the successor of See also:

• ZENO

Zeno, composed (also in hexameters) an " excellent and devout hymn " (as it is justly called by See also:

• CUDWORTH, RALPH (1617-1688)

Cudworth, in his Intellectual See also:

• SYSTEM

System) to Zeus, which is preserved in the Eclogae of See also:

• STOBAEUS, JOANNES

Stobaeus, and from which See also:

• ARATUS

Aratus borrowed the words, " For we are also His offspring," quoted by St See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens . The so-called Orphic hymns, in hexameter verse, styled reXerai, or hymns of See also:

• INITIATION (Lat. inilium, beginning, entrance, from mire, to go in)

initiation into the " mysteries " of the Hellenic See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion, are productions of the Alexandrian school, —as to which learned men are not agreed whether they are earlier or later than the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era . The See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans did not adopt the word " hymn "; nor have we many Latin poems of the classical See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age to which it can properly be applied . There are, however, a few—such as the See also:

• SIMPLE

simple and graceful " Dianae sumus in fide " (" Dian's votaries are we ") of See also:

• CATULLUS, GAIUS VALERIUS (?84-J4 B.C.)

Catullus, and " Dianam tenerae dicite virgines (" Sing to Dian, See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle maidens ") of See also:

• HORACE [QuINTus HORATIUS FLACCUS] (65-8 B.C.)

Horace—which approach much more nearly than anything Hellenic to the form and character of See also:

• MODERN

modern hymnody . 2 . See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew Hymnody.—For the origin and See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of Christian hymnody we must look, not to See also:

• GENTILE
• GENTILE, C

Gentile, but to Hebrew See also:

• SOURCES

sources . St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine's See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of a hymn, generally accepted by Christian antiquity, may be summed up in the words, " praise to See also:

• GOD

God with song " (" cum cantico "); See also:

• BEDE, BEDA, or B
• BEDE, CUTHBERT

Bede understood the " canticum " as properly requiring See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre; though he thought that what in its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language was a true hymn might retain that character in an unmetrical See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation . Modern use has enlarged the definition; See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic writers extend it to the praises of See also:

• SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE

saints; and the word now comprehends rhythmical See also:

• PROSE

prose as well as verse, and See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer and spiritual meditation as well as praise . The modern distinction between See also:

• PSALMS, BOOK
• PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER

psalms and hymns is arbitrary (see PSALMS) . The former word was used by the LXX. as a generic designation, probably because it implied an See also:

• ACCOMPANIMENT (i.e. that which " accompanies ")

accompaniment by the See also:

• PSALTERY, PSALTERION

psaltery (said by See also:

• EUSEBIUS
• EUSEBIUS (Gr. EuOi/3tos, from ebaegils, pious, cf. the Latin name Pius)
• EUSEBIUS [OF CAESAREA] (c. 260-c. 340)
• EUSEBIUS [OF EMESA] (d. c. "36o)

Eusebius to have been of very ancient use in. the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East) or other See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments . The cognate verb psallere " has been constantly applied to hymns, both in the Eastern and in the Western See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church; and the same compositions which they described generically as " psalms " were also called by the LXX . " odes " (i.e. songs) and " hymns." The latter word occurs, e.g. in Ps. lxxii .

20 ("the hymns of See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David the son of See also:

• JESSE
• JESSE, EDWARD (178o–1868)
• JESSE, JOHN HENEAGE (1815-1874)

Jesse "), in Ps. lxv . 1, and also in the Greek titles of the 6th, S4th, 55th, 67th and 76th (this numbering of the psalms being that of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English version, not of the LXX.) . The 44th See also:

• CHAPTER (a shortened form of chapiter, a word still used in architecture for a capital; derived from O. Fr. chapitre, Lat. capitellum, diminutive of caput, head)

chapter of See also:

• ECCLESIASTICUS (abbreviated to Ecclus.)

Ecclesiasticus, " Let us now praise famous men," &c., is entitled in the Greek 7rariOgvos; " The Fathers' Hymn." Bede speaks of the whole See also:

• BOOK

book of Psalms as called " See also:

• LIBER

liber hymnorum," by the universal consent of See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews, Greeks and Latins . In the New Testament we find our See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord and His apostles singing a hymn (bµvil ravers i i3XBov), after the institution of the Lord's Supper; St Paul and See also:

• SILAS (fl. A.D. 50)

Silas doing the same (iiyvouv rbv Bebv) in their See also:

• PRISON (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. prehensio, seizure)

prison at See also:

• PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik)

Philippi; St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James recommending See also:

• PSALM (from the Gr. word * hXAew, to play the harp)

psalm-singing (;17a)tMrte), and St Paul " psalms and hymns and spiritual songs " (i,l'aXµois Kai iiµvocs Kal 43bai's Irvev,uariKal's) St Paul also, in the 14th chapter of the first See also:

• EPISTLE

epistle to the See also:

• CORINTHIANS

Corinthians, speaks of singing (1,GaX ') and of every See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man's psalm *arms bjs&,v +liaX.sbv EXee), in a context which plainly has reference to the assemblies of the Corinthian Christians for See also:

• COMMON

common worship . All the words thus used were applied by the LXX. to the Davidical psalms; it is therefore possible that these only may be intended, in the different places to which we have referred . But there are in St Paul's epistles several passages (Eph. v . 14; I Tim. iii . 16; x Tim. vi . 15, 16; 2 Tim. ii . 11,12) which have so much of the form and character of later See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental hymnody as to have been supposed by See also:

• MICHAELIS, JOHANN DAVID (1717-1791)

Michaelis and others to be extracts from original hymns of the Apostolic age . Two of them are apparently introduced as quotations, though not found elsewhere in the Scriptures . A third has not only See also:

• RHYTHM (Greek pvBµds, from bap, to flow)

rhythm, but See also:

• RHYME

rhyme .

The thanksgiving prayer of the assembled disciples, recorded in Acts iv., is both in substance and in manner poetical; and in the See also:

• CANTICLES

canticles, " Magnificat," " See also:

• BENEDICTUS

Benedictus," . &c., which manifestly followed the form and See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style of Hebrew See also:

• POETRY

poetry, hymns or songs, proper for liturgical use, have always been recognized by the church . 3 . Eastern Church Hymnody.—The hymn of our Lord, the precepts of the apostles, the angelic song at the nativity, and " Benedicite omnia See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera " are referred to in a curious metrical See also:

• PROLOGUE (from Gr. 7rpo, before, and Myer, a word)

prologue to the hymnary of the Mozarabic See also:

• BREVIARY (Lat. breviarium, abridgment, epitome)

Breviary as precedents for the practice of the Western Church . In this respect, however, the Western Church followed the Eastern, in which hymnody prevailed from the earliest times . See also:

• PHILO
• PHILO, HERENNIUS

Philo describes the Theraputae (q.v.) of the neighbourhood of See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria as composers of original hymns, which (as well as old) were sung at their See also:

• GREAT

great religious festivals—the peatae. See also:

• PEOPLE

people listening in silence till they came to the closing strains, or refrains, at the end of a hymn or See also:

• STANZA (Low Lat. stantia, Ital. stantia or stanza)

stanza (the " acroteleutia " and " ephymnia "), in which all, See also:

• WOMEN

women as well as men, heartily joined . These songs, he says, were in various metres (for which he uses a number of technical terms); some were choral, some not; and they were divided into variously constructed strophes or stanzas . Eusebius, who thought that the Theraputae were communities of Christians, says that the Christian practice of his own See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day was in exact accordance with this description . The practice, not only of singing hymns, but of singing them antiphonally, appears, from the well-known See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of See also:

• PLINY, THE ELDER
• PLINY, THE YOUNGER

Pliny to See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan, to have been established in the Bithynian churches at the beginning of the 2nd century . They were accustomed stato See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die ante lucem convenire, carmenque Christo, quasi See also:

• DEE
• DEE (Welsh, Dyfrdwy;, Lat.., and in Milton, Deva)

Dee, dicere secum invicem." This agrees well, in point of time, with the tradition recorded by the historian See also:

• SOCRATES

Socrates, that See also:

• IGNATIUS ('Iyvfrior)

Ignatius (who suffered martyrdom about A.D . 107) was led by a See also:

• VISION (from Lat. videre, to see), or SIGHT

vision or See also:

• DREAM (from a root dreug, connected with Germ. trugen, to deceive)

dream of angels singing hymns in that manner to the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Trinity to introduce antiphonal singing into the church of See also:

• ANTIOCH

Antioch, from which it quickly spread to other churches . There seems to be an allusion to choral singing in the epistle of Ignatius himself to the Romans, where he exhorts them," xoptsyEV5 €voC"(" having formed them-selves into a See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir "), to " sing praise to the See also:

• FATHER

Father in Christ Jesus." A statement of See also:

• THEODORET

Theodoret has sometimes been supposed to refer the origin of antiphonal singing to a much later date; but this seems to relate only to the singing of Old Testament Psalms (TO Dave&K1)v µeXwSiav), the alternate chanting of which, by a choir divided into two parts, was (according to that statement) first introduced into the church of Antioch by two monks famous in the history of their time, Flavianus and Diodorus, under the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS

Constantius II .

Other See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the use of hymns in the 2nd century is contained in a fragment of See also:

• CAIUS
• CAIUS [Anglice KEES, KEYS, etc.], JOHN (1510-1573)

Caius, preserved by Eusebius, which refers to " all the psalms and odes written by faithful ~Qdt„~,, brethren from the beginning," as" hymning Christ, the Word of God, as God." See also:

• TERTULLIAN (c. 155-c. 222)

Tertullian also, in his descrip- tion of the " Agapae," or love-feasts, of his day, says that, after washing hands and bringing in See also:

• LIGHTS, CEREMONIAL USE OF

lights, each man was invited to come forward and sing to God's praise something either taken from the Scriptures or of his own See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition (" ut quisque de Sacris Scripturis vel proprio ingenio potest ") . See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

Bull, See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop of St David's, believed one of those See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive compositions to be the hymn appended by See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement of Alexandria to his Paedagogus; and See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

Archbishop Ussher considered the ancient See also:

• MORNING

morning and evening hymns, of which the use was enjoined by the See also:

• APOSTOLICAL

Apostolical Constitutions, and which are also mentioned in the " See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

Tract on Virginity " printed with the works of St Athan- asius, and in St See also:

• BASIL (Russ. VASILY)

Basil's See also:

• TREATISE

treatise upon the Holy Spirit, to belong to the same See also:

• FAMILY

family . Clement's hymn, in a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short anapaestic metre, beginning ar6µwv r Xcuv Made (or, according to some See also:

• EDITIONS

editions, SaatXeii &yiwv, X6-ye 7ravbaislerwp--translated by the Rev . A . Chatfield, " 0 See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

Thou, the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

King of Saints, all-conquering Word "), is rapid, spirited and well-adapted for singing . The Greek " Morning Hymn " (which, as divided into verses by Archbishop Ussher in his treatise De Symbolis, has a majestic rhythm, resembling a choric or dithyrambic See also:

• STROPHE (Gr. o-rpod>)

strophe) is the original form of "Gloria in Excelsis," still said or sung, with some See also:

• VARIATIONS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS
• VARIATIONS, CALCULUS OF

variations, in all branches of the church which have not relinquished the use of liturgies . The Latin form of this hymn (of which that in the English communion See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office is an exact translation) is said, by Bede and other ancient writers, to have been brought into use at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome by See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

Pope See also:

• TELESPHORUS

Telesphorus, as early as the time of the emperor See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian . A third, the Vesper or " See also:

• LAMP (from Gr. Xag ras, a torch, Xaµaav, to shine)

Lamp-See also:

• LIGHTING

lighting " hymn (" Ows iXapnv e yias 56 , s "—translated by See also:

• CANON

Canon See also:

• BRIGHT, JOHN (1811-188g)
• BRIGHT, SIR CHARLES TILSTON

Bright " See also:

• LIGHT

Light of Gladness, See also:

• BEAM
• BEAM (from the O. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-beam)

Beam Divine "), holds its See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place to this day in the services of the Greek rite . 3rd In the 3rd century See also:

• ORIGEN (c. 185-c. 254)

Origen seems to have had in his century. mind the words of some other hymns or hymn of like character, when he says (in his treatise Against See also:

• CELSUS (c. A.D. 178)

Celsus) : " We glorify in hymns God and His only begotten Son; as do also the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

Sun, the See also:

• MOON (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maan, Dan. maane, &c., and cognate with such Indo-Germanic forms as Gr. µlip, Sans. ma's, Irish mi, &c.; Lat. uses luna, i.e. lucna, the shining one, lucere, to shine, for the moon, but preserves the word i
• MOON, SIR RICHARD, 1ST BARONET (1814-1899)

Moon, the Stars and all the See also:

• HOST

host of See also:

• HEAVEN (0. Eng. hefen, heofon, heofone; this word appears in O.S. hevan; the High. Ger. word appears in Ger. Himmel, Dutch hemel; there does not seem to be any connexion between the two words, and the ultimate derivation of the word is unknown; the sugges

heaven . All these, in one Divine See also:

• CHORUS (Gr. xopbs)Z

chorus, with the just among men, glorify in hymns God who is over all, and His only begotten Son." So highly were these compositions esteemed in the Syrian churches that the See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council which deposed Paul of See also:

• SAMOSATA (Eau6vara, -arum, Ptol. v. 15 § r 1 ; Strabo xvi. 749)

Samosata from the see of Antioch in the time of See also:

• AURELIAN [Lucius DoMITIus AURELIANUS]

Aurelian justified that See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act, in its synodical letter to the bishops of Rome and Alexandria, on this ground (among others) that he had prohibited the use of hymns of that See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind, by uninspired writers, addressed to Christ . After the See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, the progress of hymnody became closely connected with church controversies . There had been in See also:

• EDESSA
• EDESSA (mod. , Vodena)

Edessa, at the end of the and or early in the 3rd century, a Gnostic writer of conspicuous ability, named Bardesanes, who was succeeded, as the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of his See also:

• SECT

sect or school, by his son Harmonius .

Both father and son wrote hymns, and set them to agreeable melodies, which acquired, and in the 4th century still retained, much See also:

• LOCAL

local popularity . Ephraem Syrus, the first voluminous hymn-writer whose works remain to us, thinking that the same melodies might be made useful to the faith, if adapted to more orthodox words, composed to them a large number of hymns in the See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac language, principally in tetrasyllabic, pentasyllabic and heptasyllabic metres, divided into strophes of from 4 to 12,16 and even 20 lines each . When a strophe contained five lines, the fifth was generally an " ephymnium," detached in sense, and consisting of a prayer, invocation, See also:

• DOXOLOGY (Gr. 3oi oXoyia, a praising, giving glory)

doxology or the like, to be sung antiphonally, either in full chorus or by a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• PART

part of the choir . The Syriac Chrestomathy of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August See also:

• HAHN, AUGUST (1792–1863)

Hahn (See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1825), and the third See also:

• VOLUME

volume of H . A . See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel's See also:

• THESAURUS (Gr. B17o-avp6s)

Thesaurus Hymnologicus (Leipzig, 1841-1856), contain specimens of these hymns . Some of them have been translated into (unmetrical) English by the Rev . See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• BURGESS (Med. Lat. burgensis, from burgus, a borough, a town)
• BURGESS, DANIEL (1645-1713)
• BURGESS, THOMAS (1756–1837)

Burgess (Select Metrical Hymns of Ephrem Syrus, &c., 18J3) . A considerable number of those so translated are on subjects connected with See also:

• DEATH

death, resurrection, See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, &c., and display not only Christian faith and See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope, but much simplicity and tenderness of natural feeling . Theodoret speaks of the spiritual songs of Ephraem as very sweet and profitable, and as adding much, in his (Theodoret's) time, to the brightness of the commemorations of martyrs in the Syrian Church . The Greek hymnody contemporary with Ephraem followed, with some See also:

• LICENCE (through the French from Lat. licentia, licere, to be lawful)

licence, classical See also:

• MODELS

models . One of its favourite metres was the Anacreontic; but it also made use of the short anapaestic, Ionic, See also:

• IAMBIC

iambic and other lyrical See also:

• MEASURES

measures, as well as the hexameter and See also:

• PENTAMETER

pentameter .

Its See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal authors were See also:

• METHODIUS (c. 825-885)

Methodius, bishop of Olympus, who died about A.U . 311, See also:

• SYNESIUS (c. 373-c. 414)

Synesius, who became bishop of Ptolemais in See also:

• CYRENAICA

Cyrenaica in 410, and See also:

• GREGORY
• GREGORY (Gregorius)
• GREGORY (Grigorii) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1734-1783)
• GREGORY, EDWARD JOHN (1850-19o9)
• GREGORY, OLINTHUS GILBERT (1774—1841)
• GREGORY, ST (c. 213-C. 270)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NAZIANZUS (329–389)
• GREGORY, ST, OF NYSSA (c.331—c. 396)
• GREGORY, ST, OF TOURS (538-594)

Gregory Nazianzen, for a short time (380-381) See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch of See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . The merits of these writers have been perhaps~ too much depreciated by the admirers of the later Greek " Melodiats." They have found an able English translator in the Rev . See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen Chatfield (Songs and Hymns of Earliest Greek Christian Poets, See also:

• LONDON

London, 1876) . Among the most striking of their works are sv,eo X pto ti ("Lord Jesus, think of me"), by Synesius; v~ TJv acbOLrov aov&pynv (" 0 Thou, the One Supreme ") andri vot See also:

• META

Meta yevfoOat ("0 soul of mine, repining"), byGregory; also livwOev erapO vot (" The Bridegroom cometh "), by Methodius . There continued to be Greek metrical hymn-writers, in a similar style, till a much later date . See also:

• SOPHRONIUS

Sophronius, patriarch of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem And• phoned singing . in the 7th century, wrote seven Anacreontic hymns; and St See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John Damascene, one of the most copious of the second school of Melodists," was also the author of some long compositions in trimeter iambics . An important development of hymnody at Constantinople arose out of the Arian controversy . Early in the 4th century Period See also:

• ATHANASIUS (293-373)

Athanasius had rebuked, not only the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of See also:

• ARIUS ("Apews)

Arius, of Arian but the light character of certain hymns by which he contro- endeavoured to make that doctrine popular . When, versy' towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of that century (398), St John See also:

• CHRYSOSTOM

Chrysostom was raised to the See also:

• METROPOLITAN (Lat. metropolitanus, Gr. µnrpoiroXtrns)

metropolitan see, the Arians, who were still numerous at Constantinople, had no places of worship within the walls; but they were in the See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of coming into the See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city at sunset on Saturdays, Sundays and the greater festivals, and congregating in the porticoes and other places of public resort, where they sung, all See also:

• NIGHT

night through, antiphonal songs, with " acroteleutia " (closing strains, or refrains), expressive of Arian doctrine, often accompanied by taunts and insults to the orthodox . Chrysostom was apprehensive that this See also:

• MUSIC

music might draw some of the simpler church people to the Arian See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side; he therefore organized, in opposition to it, under the patronage and at the cost of Eudoxia, the empress of See also:

• ARCADIUS
• ARCADIUS (378–408)

Arcadius (then his friend), a system of nightly processional hymn-singing, with See also:

• SILVER

silver crosses, See also:

• WAX

wax-lights and other circumstances of ceremonial pomp .

Riots followed, with bloodshed on both sides, and with some See also:

• PERSONAL

personal injury to the empress's See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• EUNUCH (Gr. Evvoi3Xos)

eunuch, who seems to have officiated as conductor or director of the church musicians . This led to the suppression, by an imperial See also:

• EDICT (Lat. edictum, from e, out, and dicere, to say, speak)

edict, of all public Arian singing; while in the church the practice of nocturnal hymn-singing on certain solemn occasions, thus first introduced, remained an established institution . It is not improbable that some rudiments of the See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar system of hymnody which now prevails throughout the Greek communion, and whose See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities are rather to the Greek Hebrew and Syriac than to the classical forms, may system hymnody. have existed in the church of Constantinople, even at that time . Anatolius, patriarch of Constantinople in the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 5th century, was the precursor of that system; but the reputation of being its proper founder belongs to See also:

• ROMANOS

Romanos, of whom little more is known than that he wrote hymns still extant, and lived towards the end of that century . The importance of that system in the services of the Greek church may be understood from the fact that Dr J . M . See also:

• NEALE, EDWARD VANSITTART (1810-1892)
• NEALE, JOHN MASON (1818–1866)

Neale computed four-fifths of the whole space (about 5000 pages) contained in the different service-books of that church to be occupied by hymnody, all in a language or See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect which has ceased to be anywhere spoken . The system has a peculiar technical terminology, in which the words " troparion," " See also:

• ODE (Gr. uiSri, from aei&ew, to sing)

ode," " canon " and " hirmus " (eip a,c) chiefly require explanation . The troparion is the unit of the system, being a strophe or stanza, seen, when analysed, to be divisible into verses or clauses, with regulated caesuras, but printed in the books as a single prose See also:

• SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judgment; vote, sentire, to feel, think)

sentence, without marking any divisions . The following (turned into English, from a " canon by John Mauropus) may be taken as an example: " The never-sleeping See also:

• GUARDIAN

Guardian, ~ the See also:

• PATRON

patron of my soul, i the See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide of my See also:

• LIFE

life, allotted me by God, I I hymn thee, Divine See also:

• ANGEL

Angel of Almighty God." Dr Neale and most other writers regard all these " troparia " as rhythmical or modulated prose . See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

Cardinal J . B .

Pitra, on the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, who in 1867 and 1876 published two learned works on this subject, maintains that they are really metrical, and governed by definite rules of See also:

• PROSODY (Gr. rpovwSta)

prosody, of which he See also:

• LAYS

lays down sixteen . According to him, each " troparion " contains from three to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-three verses; each verse varies from two to thirteen syllables, often in a continuous See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series, See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform, alternate or reciprocal, the metre being always syllabic, and depending, not on the quantity of vowels or the position of consonants, but on an See also:

• HARMONIC

harmonic series of accents . In various parts of the services solitary troparia are sung, under various names, " contacion," " oecos," " cathisma," &c., which See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark distinctions either in their character or in their use . An ode is a song or hymn compounded of several similar "troparia," —usually three, four or five . To these is always prefixed a typical or See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard " troparion," called the hirmus, by which the syllabic measure, the periodic series of accents, and in fact the whole structure and rhythm of the stanzas which follow it are regulated . Each succeeding " troparion " in the same " ode " contains the same number of verses, and of syllables in each verse, and similar accentson the same or See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent syllables . The " hirmus " may either form the first stanza of the " ode " itself, or (as is more frequently the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case) may be taken from some other piece; and, when so taken, it is often indicated by initial words only, without being printed at length . It is generally printed within commas, after the proper See also:

• RUBRIC (Fr. rubrique, Lat. rubrica, Tuber, red)

rubric of the " ode." A hymn in irregular " stichera " or stanzas, without a " hirmus," is called " idiomelon." A system of three or four odes is " triodion " or " tetraodion." A canon is a system of eight (theoretically nine) connected odes, the second being always suppressed . Various pauses, relieved by the interposition of other short chants or readings, occur during the singing of a whole " canon." The final "troparion " in each ode of the series is not unfrequently detached in sense (like the " ephymnia " of Ephraem Syrus), particularly when it is in the (very common) form of a " theotokion," or ascription of praise to the See also:

• MOTHER

mother of our Lord, and when it is a recurring refrain or See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden . There were two principal periods of Greek hymnography constructed on these principles—the first that of Romanos and his followers, extending over the 6th and 7th centuries, the second that of the See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools which arose during the Iconoclastic controversy in the 8th century, and which continued for some centuries afterwards, until the See also:

• ART

art itself died out . The works of the writers of the former period were collected in Tropologia, or church hymn-books, which were held in high esteem till the loth century, when they ceased to be school of regarded as church-books, and so See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into neglect . Romans .

They are now preserved only in a very small number of See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts . From three of these, belonging to public See also:

• LIBRARIES

libraries at See also:

• MOSCOW (Russian Moskva)
• MOSCOW, (Russian Moskva)

Moscow, See also:

• TURIN

Turin and Rome, Cardinal Pitra has printed, in his Analecta, a number of interesting examples, the existence of which appears to have been unknown to Dr Neale, and which, in the cardinal's estimation, are in many respects See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the " canons," &c., of the modern Greek service-books, from which all Neale's See also:

• TRANSLATIONS

translations (except some from Anatolius) are taken . Cardinal Pitra's selections include twenty-nine works by Romanos, and some by See also:

• SERGIUS, ST

Sergius, and nine other known, as well as some unknown, authors . He describes them as having generally a more dramatic character than the " melodies " of the later period, and a much more animated style; and he supposes that they may have been originally sung with dramatic accompaniments, by way of substitution for the theatrical performances of See also:

• PAGAN
• PAGAN (Lat. paganus, of or belonging to a pagus, a canton, county district, village, commune)

Pagan times . As an instance of their peculiar character, he mentions a See also:

• CHRISTMAS (i.e. the Mass of Christ)

Christmas or See also:

• EPIPHANY, FEAST OF

Epiphany hymn by Romanos, in twenty-five long strophes, in which there is, first, an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the Nativity and its accompanying wonders, and then a See also:

• DIALOGUE

dialogue between the See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise men, the Virgin mother and See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph . The magi arrive, are admitted; describe the moral and religious See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia and the East, and the cause and adventures of their See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey, and then offer their gifts . The Virgin intercedes for them with her Son, instructs them in some parts of Jewish history, and ends with a prayer for the salvation of the See also:

• WORLD

world . The controversies and persecutions of the' 8th and succeeding centuries turned the thoughts of the " melodists " of the great monasteries of the Studium at Constantinople and nfetodtats . St Saba in See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine and their followers, and those of the adherents of the Greek rite in See also:

• SICILY (Ital. Sicilia)

Sicily and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy (who suffered much from the See also:

• SARACENS

Saracens and the See also:

• NORMANS

Normans), into a less picturesque but more strictly theological course; and the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of those controversies, in which the final success of the cause of " Icons " was largely due to the hymns, as well as to the courage and sufferings, of these confessors, was probably the cause of their supplanting, as they did, the works of the older school . Cardinal Pitra gives them the praise of having discovered a graver and more solemn style of See also:

• CHANT (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. cantare, to sing; an old form is " chaunt ")

chant, and of having *done much to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the dogmatic See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology of their church upon its See also:

• PRESENT

present lines of near approach to the Roman.' Among the' " melodists of this latter Greek school there were many saints of the Greek church, several patriarchs and two emperors—See also:

• LEO
• LEO (THE LION)
• LEO, BROTHER (d. c. 1270)
• LEO, HEINRICH (1799-1878)
• LEO, JOHANNES (c. 1494-1552)
• LEO, LEONARDO (1694–1744)

Leo the Philosopher, and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, his son . Their greatest poets were See also:

• THEODORE
• THEODORE (602-690)
• THEODORE (Fedor) GRIGORIEVICH ORLOV, COUNT (1741–1796)
• THEODORE (Rus. Fedor, or Feodor)

Theodore and Joseph of the Studium, and See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas and John (called Damascene) of St Saba . Neale translated into English verse several selected portions, or centoes, from the works of these and others together with four selections from earlier works by Anatolius .

Some of his translations—particularly "The day is past and over," from Anatolius, and " Christian, dost thou see them," from See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

Andrew of See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete—have been adopted into hymn-books used in many English churches; and the hymn " Art thou weary," which is rather founded upon than translated from one by See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen the Sabaite, has obtained still more general popularity . 4 . Western Church Hymnody.—It was not till the 4th century that Greek hymnody was imitated in the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West, where its introduction was due to two great lights of the Latin Church—St Hilary of See also:

• POITIERS

Poitiers and St See also:

• AMBROSE (AMBROISE), AUTPERT (d.' 778)
• AMBROSE (ANDREY SERTIS-KAMENSKIY) (1708-1771)
• AMBROSE (fl. 119o)
• AMBROSE, ISAAC (1604-1663/4)
• AMBROSE, SAINT (c. 340-307)

Ambrose