I00  .O It is said to be a most complex See also:

• BODY

body of which the probable See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula is C42H157N5SO15 . If See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

wool is burnt, it largely resolves itself into See also:

• AMMONIA (NH3)

ammonia See also:

• GAS

gas—whence it derives its characteristic odour—and See also:

• CARBON (symbol C, atomic weight 12)

carbon "beads" or "re-mains," which serve to distinguish wool from See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton, which, upon being burnt, does not smoulder but See also:

• BURNS, JOHN (1858– )
• BURNS, ROBERT (1759-1796)
• BURNS, SIR GEORGE

burns with a flash and leaves no beads . For further particulars on the organic nature of the wool-fibre see See also:

• FIBRES
• FIBRES (or FIBERS, in American spelling; from Lat. fibra, apparently connected either with filum, thread, or findere, to split)

FIBRES . The bulk of the wool of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce comes into the See also:

• MARKET (Lat. mercatus, trade or place of trade)

market in the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of fleece wool, the product of a single See also:

• YEAR

year's growth, cut from See also:

• LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm)
• LAMB, CHARLES (1775–1834)

Lamb, the body of the living See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal . The first and finest clip, Lamb, d called See also:

• LAMBS

lambs' wool, may be taken from the See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep at See also:

• HOGG, JAMES (1770-1835)
• HOGG, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1792–1862)

Hogg and about the See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age of eight months . When the animal is not wool. shorn till it attains the age of twelve or fourteen months the wool is known as hogg or hogget, and, like lambs' wool, is See also:

• FINE

fine and tapers to a point . All subsequently cut fleeces are known as wether wool, and possess relatively somewhat less value than the first clip . Fleece wool as it comes into the market is " in the grease,” that is, unwashed and with all the dirt which gathers to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface of the greasy wool See also:

• PRESENT

present ; or it is received as " washed " wool, the washing being done as a preliminary to the sheep-shearing, or, in some few cases, it is scoured and is consequently stated as " scoured." Skin wool is that which is obtained from sheep which either See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die or are killed . Typical skin wool is that which has been removed by "a sweating See also:

• PROCESS

process . The worst type of skin wool—technically known as " slipe "—is removed from the skins by See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, which naturally affects the handle of the wool and renders it difficult to bring into a workable See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition later . See also:

• MAZAMET

Mazamet in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France is the See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental centre for skin wools . Where there is abundance of See also:

• WATER

water and other conveniences it is the practice to See also:

• WASH, THE

wash or See also:

• HALF

half-wash sheep previous to shearing, and Sheep such wool comes into the market as washed or half-Sheep g. washed fleece .

The surface of a fleece has usually a thick washin coating of dirt, and in the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of See also:

• MERINO

merino breeds the fleece surface is firmly caked together into solid masses, from the See also:

• ADHESION (from Lat. adhaerere, to adhere)

adhesion of dirt to the wool constantly moist with the exudation from the skin of the greasy yolk or " suint," so that in an unwashed very greasy fleece 30% of See also:

• WEIGHT

weight may represent dirt, arid about 40% the greasy suint which lubricates the wool, while the pure wool is not more than one-third See also:

• PART

part of the whole . Where See also:

• RUNNING

running streams exist, the sheep are penned by the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the water, and taken one by one and held in the stream while they are washed, one See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man holding and the other washing . The operation is objectionable in many ways, as it pollutes the stream, and it dissipates no mean amount of potash salts, valuable for manure or for other chemical purposes . Sheep washing appliances are now largely employed, the arrangement consisting of a See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen into which the sheep are driven and subjected to a strong spray of water either hot or See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold, which soaks the fleece and softens the dirt . This done, they are caused to swim along a tank which narrows towards the exit, and just as they pass out of the pen they are caught and subjected to a strong douche of pure water . They should then be kepton grass See also:

• LAND

land See also:

• FREE

free from See also:

• STRAW

straw, See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, &c., so that the woo. may be sheared free from See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable See also:

• MATTER

matter, &c . After a few days the wool of a washed sheep is sufficiently dry for shearing or clipping . The relative advantages of See also:

• SHIPPING

shipping wool in the greasy or washed See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state have been fiercely debated . Although there are naturally exceptions, the superiority of greasy wool is now generally recognized . This is not only because the wool more fully retains its nature, but because it is more readily judged for " yield " and its See also:

• SPINNING (from O. Eng. spinnen, to spin, cf. Ger. spinnen, &c., the Teut. root is seen, to draw out, cf. span, spider)

spinning qualities are, perhaps, more readily estimated . The following See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list gives an See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the yield in clean wool of the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief commercial varieties, from which it will be noted that roughly merino greasy wool yields about 5o% clean wool and See also:

• ENGLISH

English about 75% clean wool . Type of Wool .

Yield per cent of Clean Wool . Australian Merino 5o% Cape 48 % See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South See also:

• AMERICAN

American Merino 45 New See also:

• ZEALAND (also SEALAND Or SEELAND; Danish Sjaelland)

Zealand See also:

• CROSS

Cross-bred 75% South American Cross-bred 75 % English Southdown 8o% See also:

• SHROPSHIRE (SALOP)

Shropshire 8o% See also:

• LINCOLN
• LINCOLN, ABRAHAM (1809-1865)
• LINCOLN, EARLS OF

Lincoln 75% See also:

• MOHAIR

Mohair 850/ See also:

• ALPACA

Alpaca 85 % A skilful See also:

• SHEARER, THOMAS

shearer will clip the fleece from a sheep in one unbrokei continuous See also:

• SHEET

sheet, retaining the form and relative positions of the See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass almost as if the creature had been skinned . In this Sheep unbroken condition each fleece is rolled up by itself and sheering, tied with its own wool, which greatly facilitates the sorting or stapling which all wool undergoes for the separation of the several qualities which make up the fleece . See also:

• MECHANICAL

Mechanical See also:

• SHEARS

shears have almost revolutionized the shearing See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry, a See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good shearer shearing from See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo to 200 sheep per See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . On the great Australian sheep stations wool classing is one of the most important operations, largely taking the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of sorting in the English wcol See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . This is no doubt due to the wonderful Wool success which has attended the efforts of the Australian classing' sheep breeders to breed a sheep of See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• STAPLE

staple through- out . Thus the fleeces as taken from the sheep are skirted and trimmed on one table and then passed on to the classer, who places them in the 56's, 6o's, 64's, 70's, 80's or 90's class according to their fineness, these See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers approximately indicating the worsted See also:

• COUNTS

counts to which it is supposed they will spin . The shorter Australian wools not coming under any of these heads are classed as super-clothing, See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary clothing, &c., being more suitable for the woollen industry . The See also:

• ART

art of sheep shearing, skirting, classing, packing and trans-porting has been brought up to a wonderful state of perfection in See also:

• AUSTRALIA

Australia, and the " get up ' of the wool is usually much See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior to the " get up " of the " See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home-clip." Of See also:

• LATE

late there has been an outcry against the prevalence of vegetable matter in colonial wools, but it seems probable that with the See also:

• ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio, for adoptalio, from adoptare, to choose for oneself)

adoption of a suitable woolpack, and the exercising of a little more care in sorting at the home end, this difficulty will be satisfactorily surmounted . Sorting or stapling was formerly a distinct industry, and to some extent it is so still, though frequently the See also:

• WORK

work is done on the premises of the comber or spinner . See also:

• CARDING

Carding wools are Wool separated and classed differently from combing wools, and soro! in dealing with fleeces from different breeds, the classifica- tion of the sorter varies, In the woollen trade See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-staple wool is separated into qualities, known, in descending See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series from the finest to the most worthless, as picklock, See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime, choice, super, See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head, seconds, abb and See also:

• BREECH (common in early forms to Teutonic languages)

breech, and the proportions in which the higher and See also:

• LOWER

lower qualities are present are determined by the " class " of the fleece . In the worsted trade the See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification goes, also in descending series, from fine, See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue, neat, See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown, breech, downright, seconds, to abb for English wools .

The last three are short and not commonly used in the worsted trade . The greater proportion of good English See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long wool will be classified as blue, neat and brown; it is only in exceptional cases that more than from 5 to 8 % is " fine " on the one See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, or of lower quality than breech on the other . Generally speaking, the best portion of a fleece is from the shoulders and side of the animal . The quality decreases towards the tail end of the sheep, the britch " being frequently long, strong and irregular . The belly wool is short, worn and dirty, as is also the front of the See also:

• THROAT (O. Eng. protu, prote or }Prota, possibly from preotan, to press, whence threat, or, with loss of initial s, connected with strut, to swell)

throat, while on the head and shins the product is short, stiff and straight, more like See also:

• HAIR (a word common to Teutonic languages)

hair than wool and is liable to contain See also:

• GREY, CHARLES GREY, 2ND EARL (1764-1845)
• GREY, HENRY GREY, 3RD EARL (1802-1894)
• GREY, LADY JANE (1537-1554)
• GREY, SIR EDWARD
• GREY, SIR GEORGE (1812–1898)

grey hairs . The colonial wools come " classed," and consequently are only as a See also:

• RULE

rule sorted into three or four qualities . Thus a 6o's fleece may be sorted into 56's, ordinary 6o's, super 6o's and skirtings . The sorter See also:

• WORKS

works at a table or See also:

• FRAME

frame covered with See also:

• WIRE (A.S. wir, a wire; cf. Swed. vire, to twist, M.H.G. wiere, a gold ornament, Lat. viriae, armlets, ultimately from the root wi, to twist, bind)

wire netting through which dust and dirt fall as he handles the wool . Fleeces which have been hard packed in See also:

• BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547–1610?)

bales, especially if unwashed, go into dense hard masses, which may be heated till the softening of the yolk and the swelling of the fibres make them pliable and easily opened up . When the fleece is spread out the stapler first divides it into two equal sides; then he picks away all straws, large burrs, and tarry fragments which are visible; and then with marvellous precision and certainty he Dicks out his See also:

• SEPARATE

separate qualities, throwing each See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot into its allotted receptacle . Sorting is very far removed from being a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere mechanical process of selecting and separating the wool from certain parts of the fleece, because in each individual fleece qualities and proportions differ, and it is only by long experience that a stapler is enabled, almost as it were by See also:

• INSTINCT

instinct, rightly to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide up his lots, so as to produce even qualities of raw material . Cleanliness is most essential if the wool sorter is to keep his See also:

• HEALTH

health and not succumb to the dread disease known as " See also:

• ANTHRAX (the Greek for " coal,” or " carbuncle," so called by the ancients because they regarded it as burning like coal; cf. the French equivalent charbon; also known as fievre charbonneuse, Milzbrand, splenic fever, and malignant pustule)

anthrax " or " wool-sorters' disease." Certain wools such as See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian, See also:

• VAN

Van mohair, &c., are known to be very liable to carry the anthrax bacilli, and must be sorted under the conditions imposed by See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government for " dangerous wools." Ordinary or non-dangerous wools are perfectly harmless from this point of view .

The washing which a fleece may have received on the live sheep is not sufficient for the ordinary purposes of the manufacturer . On the careful and See also:

• COMPLETE

complete manner in which scouring is Scouring. effected much depends . The qualities of the fibre may be seriously injured by injudicious treatment, while, if the wool is imperfectly cleansed, it will dye unevenly, and the manufacturing operations will be more or less unsatisfactory . The water used (or scouring should be soft and pure, both to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save See also:

• SOAP

soap and still more because the insoluble lime soap formed in dissolving soap in hard water is de-posited on the wool fibres and becomes so fixed that its removal is a matter of extreme difficulty . In former times stale urine was a favourite See also:

• MEDIUM

medium in which to scour wool; but that is now a thing of the past, and a specially prepared potash soap is the detergent principally relied on . Excess of See also:

• ALKALI

alkali has to be guarded against, since uncombined See also:

• CAUSTIC (Gr. rcavvraubs, burning)

caustic acts energetically on the wool fibre—especially in the presence of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat—and is indeed a solvent of it . A soap See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of too great strength leaves the wool harsh and brittle, and the same detrimental result arises when the soapy solution is applied too hot . In former days, when the method of hand-scouring prevailed, the wool to be washed was placed with hot soap-sud in a large scouring " bowl " or vat, and two men with long poles kept stirring it gently about till the detergent loosened and separated the dirt and dis- sociated the grease . The wool was then lifted out and drained, after which it was rinsed in a current of clean water to remove the " scour " and then dried . These operations are now performed in scouring See also:

• MACHINES

machines . Many firms now steep the wool previous to the true scouring operation, the See also:

• OBJECT

object being to scour the wool with its own potash salts, to obtain wash-See also:

• WATERS, TERRITORIAL

waters so fully charged with the potash salts that these salts, &c., may be readily extracted and put to some good use, and lastly to save the artificial scouring See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent employed in the true scouring operation . The scouring of wool has passed through many vicissitudes during the past fifty years, but to-day the principle upon which all scouring machines are based is that wool naturally opens out in water .

The mechanical arrangements of the machines are such as to ensure the passage of the wool without undue lifting and " stringing," to obviate the mixing of wool grease, sand, dirt, &c., once taken out of the wool with that wool again, to give See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time for the thorough See also:

• ACTION

action of the scouring agents, so that neither too strong a solution nor too great a heat be employed, and to allow of the ready cleansing of the machines so that there is no unnecessary See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste of time . In See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England the recognized type of merino wool-washing See also:

• MACHINE
• MACHINE (through Fr. from Lat. form machina of Gr. µnxavil)

machine is the See also:

• FORK (Lat. furca)

fork-frame bowl . Three to five of these machines are employed . The " scour " is strongest and hottest in the first bowl (unless this is used as a " steeper ' ) as the wool at first is protected from the caustic by the wool-See also:

• FAT (O.E. fdett; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vet, Ger. Fett, &c., and may be ultimately related to Greek Irian, and =apos, and Sanskrit pivan)

fat, &c., present . The last bowl is simply a rinsing bowl . With See also:

• MODERN

modern " nip rollers " See also:

• BOTANY (from Gr. l3or6v17, plant; ,66vicety, to graze)

botany wool is sufficiently dry to be passed on directly—say by pneumatic conveyers —to the carding . This the worsted spinner does, thereby saving time and See also:

• MONEY

money . The woollen spinner, however, may require the wool for blending, and so may require it dry and in a See also:

• FIT

fit state for oiling . He, therefore, will employ one or other of the drying See also:

• PRO

pro- cesses to be immediately described . For English and cross-bred wools more agitation in the scouring See also:

• BATH
• BATH, THOMAS THYNNE
• BATH, WILLIAM

bath may be desirable . If so, the See also:

• ECCENTRIC (from Gr. F,c, out of, and Kivrpov, centre)

eccentric fork action machine is employed, in which the agitation of the bath is satisfactorily controlled by the setting of the forks which propel the wool forward . An See also:

• AVERAGE

average wool will be in the scouring liquor about eight minutes, the temperature will vary from 120° F. to 1Io° F., and the length of bath through which it will have passed will be from 48 to 6o ft .

It is interesting to See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note that the " emulsion " method of wool scouring as described above is practically universal in England . In the See also:

• UNITED

United States of See also:

• AMERICA

America the " solvent " method is largely in use, for the two points aimed at are quantity of See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production and cheapness . Quality is sacrificed to quantity and cheapness results from the ease with which the agent employed—say carbon disulphide —is recovered by volatilizing and condensing, thus being used over and over again . Botany wools should leave the wool-washing machine in a fit condition to be fed immediately on to the carder, provided that the first cylinders are clothed with galvanized wire . Cross-bred and English wool, however, require artificially drying . The more gently and uniformly the drying can be effected the better is the result attained; over-drying of wool has to be specially guarded against . By some manufacturers the wool from wool the squeezing rollers is whizzed in a hydro-extractor, drying. which drives out so much of the moisture that the further drying is easily effected . The commonest way, however, of drying is to spread the wool as uniformly as possible over a framework of wire netting, under or over which is a range of See also:

• STEAM
• STEAM (0. Eng. steam, vapour, smoke, cf. Du. steam; the origin is unknown)

steam-heated pipes . A See also:

• FAN (Lat. vannus; Fr. eventail)

fan blast blows See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air over these hot pipes, and the heated air passes up and is forced upwards through the layer of wool which rests on the netting or downwards, as the case may be . In this case, unless the wool is spread with great evenness, it gets unequally dried, and at points where the hot air escapes freely it may be much over-dried . A more rapid and uniform result may be obtained by the use of the mechanical wool drier, a See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close chamber divided into See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal compartments, the floors of which have alternate fixed and movable bars . Under the chamber is a tubular See also:

• HEATING

heating apparatus, and a fan by which a powerful current of heated air is blown up the side of the chamber, and through all the shelves or compartments successively, either following or opposing the wool in its passage through the machine .

The wool is introduced by a continuous feed at one side of the chamber; the strength of the blast carries it up and deposits it on the upper shelf, and by the action of the movable bars, which are worked by cranks, it is carried forward to the opposite end, whence it drops to the next lower shelf, and so on it travels till at the extremity of the lower shelf it passes out by the delivery lattice well and equally dried . Another drying machine in extensive use is what is known as the " Jumbo Dryer." This consists of a large revolving See also:

• CYLINDER (Gr. KvAwSpos, from KvXivaety, to roll)

cylinder or See also:

• CHURN (0. Eng. cyrin; found in various forms in most Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch karn; according to the New English Dictionary not connected with " quern," a mill)

churn which turns over the wool—as a churn turns See also:

• BUTTER (Lat. butyrum, Gr. 0obrvpov, apparently connected with $ous, cow, and rvpbs, cheese, but, according to the New English Dictionary, perhaps of Scythian origin)

butter—and owing to its inclination passes it from one end to the other . A hot air blast follows the wool through the machine . In this and in all drying machines it is more important to get the moisture laden air away from the wool than to develop a great heat . The dried wool may be in a partially matted condition . If so, it must be opened out and the whole material brought into a uniformly free and loose condition . This effected in the Willey, Teasing. which consists of a large See also:

• DRUM (early forms drome or dromme, a word common to many Teut. languages, cf. Dan. tromme, Ger. Trommel: the word is ultimately the same as " trumpet," and is probably onomatopoeic in origin; it appears late in Eng. about the middle of the 16th century)

drum and three small cylinders mounted in an enclosed frame . The drum is armed with ranges of powerful hooked See also:

• TEETH (O.E. Eel); plural of tooth, O.E. top)

teeth or spikes, and is geared to rotate with great rapidity, making about 500 revolutions per See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute . The smaller cylinders, called workers, are also provided with strong spikes; they are mounted over the drum and revolve more slowly in a direction contrary to the drum, the spikes of which just clear those of the workers . The wool is fed into the drum, which carries it See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round with great velocity; but, as it passes on, the locks are caught by the spikes of the workers, and in the contest for possessing the wool the matted locks are torn asunder till the whole wool is delivered in a See also:

• LIGHT

light, free and disentangled condition . It is a debatable point as to whether willowing should precede scouring . Some scourers always See also:

• WILLOW (Salix)

willow See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

prior to scouring, while others never subject the wool to this See also:

• OPERA (Italian for " work ")

opera. tion, which is advantageous in some cases and not in others .

For certain classes of wool, notably Buenos Aires, still another preparing operation is essential at this See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

stage—that is, the removal of burrs or small persistently adherent seeds and other Burring. fragments of vegetable matter which remain in the wool . Two methods of effecting this—one chemical, the other mechanical—may be pursued . The chemical treatment consists in steeping the wool in a dilute solution of sulphuric See also:

• ACID (from the Lat. root ac-, sharp; acere, to be sour)

acid (or other carbonizing agent), draining off the dilute acid by means of the hydro extractor, and then heat-drying in a temperature of about 25o° F . The acid leaves the wool practically uninjured, but is concentrated on the more absorbent vegetable matter, and the high heat causes it to See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act so that the vegetable matter becomes completely carbonized . The burrs are then crushed and the wool washed in water rendered sufficiently alkaline to neutralize any free acid which may remain, and dried . The same See also:

• BURR, AARON (1756-1836)

burr-removing effect is obtained by the use of a solution of chloride of See also:

• ALUMINIUM (symbol Al; atomic weight 27.0)

aluminium, a method said to be safer for the wool and less hurtful to the attendant workmen than is the sulphuric acid process . For mechanical removing of burrs, a machine some-thing like the Willey in See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance is employed . The See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main feature of this apparatus is a large drum or See also:

• SWIFT
• SWIFT, JONATHAN (1667—1745)

swift armed with fine short spikes curved slightly in the direction in which it rotates . By a series of beaters and circular brushes the wool is carried to and fed oh these short spikes, and in its rotation the burrs, owing to their weight, hang out from the swift . The swift as it travels round is met by a Tail The numbers indicate the quality of wool taken from the respective sections of the fleece . Thus the finest quality 44's—is found on the shoulders, while the coarsest " britch " is found on the See also:

• HIND

hind-quarters of the sheep . series of three burring rollers rotating in an opposite direction, the be a blending of various materials, such as noils, rnungo, cotton, &c., projecting rails of which knock the burrs off the wool .

The burrs to obtain a cheap blend which may be spun into a satisfactory warp fall on a grating and are ejected, with a certain amount of wool ad- or weft See also:

• YARN

yarn . The blender proceeds as follows: first a layer of No . 1 hering to them, by another rotating cylinder . With wools not too material—say wool—is spread over the required See also:

• AREA

area on the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor; it burry the worsted spinner largely depends upon burring rollers is then lightly oiled . A layer of No . 2 material—say noils—is now placed upon the first cylinder of the " carder," and possibly to one added to the first layer; then another layer of wool with rather more or other of the patent pulverizing processes applied further on in the oiling; then No . 2, then No . 1 with still more oil until all the material card . In the latter process a complete pulverizing of the burrs is is built up into layers in the stack . The stack is now beaten down aimed at, this being effected by the introduction of specially See also:

• CON

con- sideways with sticks, and then the more or less mixed mass is passed structed pulverizing rollers between the first doffer and the last swift through the willow and fearnaught still further to mix it prior to of the carding See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine. carding, where the true and really fine mixing takes place . After The processes hitherto described are See also:

• COMMON

common to merino, cross-bred passing through the fearnaught the material is sheeted and See also:

• LEFT

left to or botany wools be they intended for woollen or worsted yarns " mellow," this no doubt consisting in the oil applied distributing Woollens From this point, however, differentiation starts . Wool itself throughout the material .

If wool and cotton are blended and may now be manipulated with the idea of converting it together the wool must be oiled first, or the blend will not work to the worsteds. into See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt (q.v.), woollen or worsted fabrics . In a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general greatest See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage . The oil may be best See also:

• GALLIPOLI (anc. Callipolis)
• GALLIPOLI (Turk. Gelibolu, anc. KaAAiiroXrs)

Gallipoli See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive oil—which way it may be said that woollen yarns are those made from should not turn rancid—but there are many good See also:

• OILS (adopted from the Fr. oile, mod. huile, Lat. oleum, olive oil)

oils—and unshort wools possessed of high felting qualities, which are prepared by fortunately many See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad oils—placed on the market at a reasonable the process' of carding; whereby the fibres are as far as possible See also:

• RATE

rate which the really skilled See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge may use to advantage . The per-crossed and interlaced with each other, and that the carded-slivers, centage of oil varies from 2 % to to %—this remark applies both to though perhaps hard spun on the See also:

• MULE (Lat. mulus)

mule frame, form a light fluffy the woollen and worsted trades—and there is no See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide as to the yarn, which suits the conditions when See also:

• WOVEN

woven into See also:

• CLOTH

cloth for being amount required, saving and excepting experience, observation and brought into the semi-felted condition by milling which is the dis- common sense . Automatic oiling arrangements have been applied tinguishing characteristic of woollen cloth . On the other hand, in the woollen trade with only a moderate amount of success, the worsted yarns are generally made from the long lustrous varieties of sprinkling of the oil by means of a watering-can on the stack, made wool; the fibres are so combed as to bring them as far as possible as described above, still being most in favour . The oil serves to parallel to each other; the spinning is usually effected on the frame, lubricate the fibres, and to render them more plastic and consequently and the yarn is spun into a compact, smooth and level See also:

• THREAD (0. Eng. praed, literally, that which is twisted, prawan, to twist, to throw, cf. " throwster," a silk-winder, Ger. drehen, to twist, turn, Du. draad, Ger. Draht, thread, wire)

thread, which, more workable, and to bind the fibrous mass together and thus pre-when woven into, cloth, is not necessarily milled or felted . At all vent " See also:

• FLY (formed on the root of the supposed original Tent. fleugan, to fly)

fly " during the passage through the See also:

• CARDS, PLAYING

cards . points, however, woollen and worsted yarns as thus defined overlap Carding was originally effected by hand, two_flat boards with con- each other, some woollens being made from longer wool than certain worsteds, and some worsteds made from short staple wool, carded as well as combed . Worsted yarn is now largely spun on the mule frame, while milling or felting is a process done in all degrees—woollen being sometimes not at all milled, while to some worsteds a certain milled finish is given . The fundamental distinction between the two rests in the See also:

• CROSSING

crossing and interlacing of the Dr fibres in preparing woollen yarn—an operation confined to this alone among all textiles, while for worsted yarn the fibres are treated, as in the case of all other textile materials, by processes designed to V R t 4w~ bring them into a smooth parallel relation- See also:

• SHIP

ship to each other . To obtain a sliver which can be satisfactorily spun into a typical woollen thread Woollen the following operations are yarn necessary: willowing, oiling and FIG .

8.—Sectional View of Carder; illustrating the principles of carding . menu- blending, teasing, carding (two facture. or three operations), condensing and roving . Spinning venient handles, covered with teeth or card clothing, serving as a upon the woollen mule completes the series of operations means of teasing out See also:

• LOCK (from the O. Eng. loc.; the word appears, in different forms, in many Teutonic languages, but with such various meanings as " hole," Ger. Loch, " lid," Swed. lock, &c.; probably the original was a root meaning " to enclose ")
• LOCK, MATTHIAS

lock by lock, fibre by fibre, See also:

• REVERSING

reversing See also:

• ROOT (late O.E. rot, adopted from Scand., cf. Norw. and Swed. rot, Dan. rod; the true O.E. word was wyrt, plant, represented in Ger. Wurz or Wurzel; the ultimate root is the same in both words, and is seen in Lat. radix)
• ROOT, ELIHU (1845– )

root to tip all of which are designed to See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead up to the desired result . Of and tip to root, so that a perfect mixing of the fibres re- carding the foregoing operations the carding is perhaps the most important suited . It was but natural that,whenanattemptwasmade as it is certainly one of the most interesting . At the same time it must to render the carding operation more.mechanical, the operation should be fully realized that deficiencies in any one of these operations will be converted into a continuous one through the adoption of rollers result in bad work at every subsequent process . For example, let an in place of flats . FIats combined with rollers still maintain their unsatisfactory See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination of materials be blended together and position in cotton carding, but in wool carding the pure See also:

• ROLLER

roller card is there will be trouble in both carding and spinning . The roving opera- employed . The factors of carding are See also:

• SIZE

size of rollers, speeds of tion included above is not always necessary . In the old days, if a rollers, inclination of teeth and See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density of card clothing . Probably really fine thread were required, roving was absolutely necessary, as no operation in the textile See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries is so little understood as carding. the carder could not turn off a sliver fine enough to be spun at one Thus the long wool carder would think a man an idiot who suggested operation .

To-day, however, with the " tape " condensers, such fine the running of the teeth of the various cylinders actually into one slivers can be turned off the See also:

• CONDENSER

condenser that there is no difficulty in another, while the short mungo carder regularly carries out this idea, spinning directly to the required See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count . In some few cases, however, and so on . The underlying principle of carding, however, is shown iq it may be cheaper to rove than to condense fine; again, certain fig . 8, in which a sectional See also:

• DRAWING

drawing of part of a card is given . The See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical characteristics appertain to the roved thread, as distinct wool is carried into the machine on a travelling lattice and de' from the condensed thread, which may occasionally be of use to the livered to the feed rollers A, A', A" of which A and A" in turn are cloth constructor. stripped by the ticker-in B working at a greater See also:

• SPEED, JOHN (1552–1629)

speed point to smooth At the beginning of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century woollen cloths were made of side . This in turn is stripped by the See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle stripper C again working wool—some of them of the very finest wool obtainable . To-day at a greater speed point to smooth side, which in its turn is stripped Blending woollen cloths are made from any and every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of by the swift D—the " carrying-forward " and swiftest carding and material, of which the following are the most important: cylinder in the machine . The swift carries the wool forward past oiling noils (botany, cross-bred, English, alpaca and mohair), the stripper E—which as a matter of fact is stripped by the swift mungo, See also:

• SHODDY

shoddy, See also:

• EXTRACT (from Lat. extrahere, to draw out)

extract, flocks, fud (short See also:

• MILL
• MILL (O. Eng. mylen, later myln, or miln, adapted from the late Lat. molina, cf. Fr. moulin, from Lat. mola, a mill, molere, to grind; from the same root, mol, is derived " meal;" the word appears in other Teutonic languages, cf. Du. molen, Ger. muhle)
• MILL, JAMES (1773-1836)
• MILL, JOHN (c. 1645–1707)
• MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873)

mill waste), still working point to smooth side—into the slowly retreating cotton sweeping, See also:

• SILK

silk waste, &c., &c.; in fact it is said that anything teeth of the first worker F, which, being set a See also:

• FAIR

fair distance from which has two ends to it can be incorporated into a woollen thread • the swift, just allows well laid-down wool to pass, but catches and cloth . It does not follow, however, that all woollen cloth is any projecting and uncarded staples . The worker in its turn is cheap and nasty . On the contrary the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of England still pro- stripped by the stripper E', which in turn is stripped by the swift as duces the finest woollen fabrics of really marvellous texture and already described . The passage of the wool forward through the beauty, and See also:

• BATLEY

Batley, See also:

• DEWSBURY

Dewsbury, &c., produce many fabrics which are machine depends upon its being carried past each worker in turn. certainly cheap and yet anything but nasty .

The first essential for Thus from beginning to end of a machine the workers are set closer blending is that the materials to be blended should be fairly finely and closer to the swift, so that the last worker only allows come divided . This is effected by passing each material, if necessary, pletely carded wool to pass it . Immediately on passing the last through the willow or through the " fearnaught "—a machine coming worker F' the wool is brushed up on the surface of the swift by the between the willow and card—prior to beginning the "blend-stack." " See also:

• FANCY (a shortened form, dating from the 15th century, of " fantasy," which is derived through the O. Fr. fantasie, modern fantaisie. from the Latinized form of the Gr. cbavraoia, Oavrai'ecv, Oat Pais, to show)

fancy " G—as a rule the only cylinder whose teeth actually work Sometimes it may be that a blending of different See also:

• COLOURS, MILITARY

colours of wools to into the teeth of the swift and the only cylinder with a greater obtain a definite " See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour mixture " is necessary, more often it will surface speed than the swift . The swift then throws its brushed-uk coating of wool into the slowly retreating teeth of the doffer H, which carries it forward until angle stripper C' strips the doffer, to be in its turn stripped by swift D' and soon . The speeds of the cylinders are in the first place obviously dependent upon the principle of carding adopted, the greater speed always stripping (save in the case of the fancy) . As to whether the speed shall be obtained by actual revolutions or by a larger See also:

• DIAMETER (from the Cr. &a, through, µErpov, measure)

diameter of cylinder depends upon the nature of the wool to be carded (long or short), the part which each cylinder has to See also:

• PLAY

play in the card, and upon the question of See also:

• WEAR

wear of clothing and See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power consumed . As a rule the strippers are all driven from a smaller circumference of the swift to obtain conveniently the necessary reduction in speed, and the slowly revolving workers are See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain driven from the doffer, which indirectly receives its See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion from the swift . The principles involved In the relative inclinations of teeth are very apparent, but the principles involved in the relative densities of teeth on the respective cylinders are again much involved and little understood . A complete scribbler or first card engine consists of a See also:

• BREAST (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. the Ger. Brust, possibly connected with an O. Sax. brustian, to bud)

breast, or small swift, and two swifts with the accompanying workers, strippers, fancies, doffers, &c . The wool is stripped from this card as a thin film by means of the doffing See also:

• COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. Kamm, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in yoµros, a peg or pin, and Sanskrit, gambhas, a tooth)

comb . This is usually weighed on to the next machine—whether intermediate or condenser—a given weight giving a definite count of condensed sliver . Should an intermediate be employed, there must be an automatic feed, taking the wool, as stripped from the last doffer of the intermediate, and feeding it perfectly evenly on to the feed sheet of the condenser .

The con-denser is usually a one-swifted card, the only difference in principle being that, whereas the sliver comes out of the scribbler or inter-mediate in one broad film, it is broken up into a number of small continuous slivers or films, each one of which will ultimately be drafted or See also:

• DRAWN

drawn out and See also:

• TWISTED

twisted into a more or less perfect thread . These slivers—which are delicate and See also:

• PITH (O.E. pitca, cognate with Du. pit, kernel of a nut)

pith-like in substance—are See also:

• WOUND (O. Eng. wund,connected with a Teutonic verb, meaning to strive, fight, suffer, seen in O. Eng. winnan, whence Eng. " win ")

wound on to light bobbins, and these bobbins are placed on the mule for the final roving and spinning operations . There are many forms of condensing mechanisms such as the single-doffer, the doubledoffer and the tape-condensers, but their construction is too complex to be described here . Whatever the type may be, the result is that noted above, but it should be noted that the tape enables a much finer sliver to be taken from the card than is possible with either the single- or See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double-doffer condenser . The principles involved in mule spinning are comparatively See also:

• SIMPLE

simple, but the necessary machinery is very complex; indeed it is question- able able if a more ingenious machine than the mule exists . spinning . The pith-like slivers received from the card-See also:

• LOOM

loom must be attenuated until the correct count of yarn is obtained; they must be twisted while this attenuation or drafting is in process, otherwise they would at once break; and after being attenuated to the required finenessthe requisite number of turns must be inserted . Great stress must be laid on the effects of what is termed the " draft- See also:

• ING

ing-twist " noted above; it is probably this simultanerus drafting and twisting which develops the most pronounced characteristics of the woollen yarn and cloth, and differentiates it entirely from the F worsted yarn and cloth . The mule (see fig . 9) consists of the de-See also:

• LIVERY

livery cylinders A, upon which the sliver bobbins B from the con-denser are placed, which deliver the slivers as required to the front delivery rollers C (these rollers controlling perfectly the delivery of sliver for each stretch of the See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage), and the carriage EE carrying the spindles which may be run close up to the front de-livery rollers and about two yards away from them to effect the " spin, " which is of an intermittent See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The spindles D are turned by bands passing round a See also:

• TIN (Lat.- stannum, whence the chemical symbol " Sn "; atomic weight =117.6, 0=16)

tin drum K in the carriage, but this motion, and every other motion in the mule, is controlled perfectly from the headstock . In brief, the operation of spinning is as follows: as the carriage begins to recede from the delivery rollers these rollers deliver condensed sliver at about the same rate as the carriage moves out, the spindles putting in a little twist .

When the carriage has perhaps completed half its See also:

• TRAVERSE

traverse (say 36") away from the front rollers these suddenly stop delivering the condensed sliver, the carriage goes more and more slowly outwards until it completes its traverse, drafting the sliver out to perhaps double the length . This drafting could not be effected but for the." drafting-twist, " which, running into the thin parts of the yarn during drafting, strengthens them and thus from beginning to end equalizes the thread . Upon the completion of drafting the spindles are thrown on to " double speed " to complete the twisting of the 72" of yarn just spun as rapidly as possible, the carriage being allowed to run inwards for a few inches, to allow for the take-up due to twisting . The mule now stops dead, backs-off the turns of yarn from the bottom of the spindle to the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, the faller H wire falls into position to guide the thread on to the spindle to form the required cop G, and the See also:

• COUNTER

counter-faller I wire rises to maintain a See also:

• NICE

nice tension on the yarn . The carriage now runs in, the spindles being revolved to See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind up the yarn, and, in See also:

• CONJUNCTION (from Lat. conjungere, to join together)

conjunction with the guiding on of the faller wire, builds up a See also:

• FIRM

firm cop or spool, as the case may be . Woollen mules are made with several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred spindles and of varying See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch to suit particular requirements . Thus if the mules are to follow a set of say three carders with a tape condenser, and are required to spin fine counts, the pitch of the spindles may be much finer than ordinary, but a greater number will be required to work up the sliver delivered by the set of machines . There are many other details which require careful See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration; the inclination of the spindles, for example, must be suited to the material to be spun . And when all the mechanical arrangements are perfect there is still the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of correct See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment as to the qualities of the blend in hand, for in this case perhaps more than in any other the machine must be adjusted to the material and not the material to the machine . A is the back-See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft receiving its motion from the See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving shaft upon which are the pulleys . This back-shaft A drives the back-rollers B at a slow speed by the reducing See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train of wheels C; also the front rollers D at a much quicker speed through the train of wheels E, and the fallers F at an intermediary speed by means of the levels and screws G . G .

The wool is " made up " on the feed sheet and on emerging from the front rollers is built up layer by layer into the See also:

• LAP

lap H, which is finally broken across and feeds up at the next machine . The yarn as delivered by the mule is " single " and will serve as warp or weft for the great bulk of woollen cloths, warp being as a rule twisted harder than weft . Sometimes for strength, sometimes for colour, however, it will be necessary to twist two or more of these single strands together . This is best effected on a twisting frame of the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring type, which consists of delivery rollers, to deliver a specified length of yarn in relationship to the turns of the spindles, and the spindles, which serve to put in twist and to wind the yarn upon the bobbin or See also:

• TUBE (Lat. tuba)

tube, which they carry by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of the retarding action of the traveller . Fancy twists such as knops, loops, slubs, &c., may also be produced if the frame is fitted up with two pairs of delivery rollers and two or three See also:

• SPECIAL

special but simple appliances . The essential feature of a worsted yarn is straightness of fibre . Prior to the introduction of automatic machinery there was little difficulty in attaining this characteristic, as long wool was invariably employed and the sliver was made up by hand and then twisted . With the introduction of See also:

• ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD (1732-1792)

Arkwright's " water frame " or " throstle " the necessity for prepared slivers became apparent, and with the later introduction of cap and mule spinning the necessity for perfectly prepared slivers has been so accentuated that the preparatory machinery has quite Worsted yarn manufacture . exceeded the actual spinning machine in extent and complexity. scour the slivers again, this being effected in what is termed a back-To-day there are three distinct methods of producing worsted yarn. washing machine . This machine as shown in fig. i t usually consists A are the delivering rollers, B, B are the immersing rollers in the first tank, C, C are the See also:

• PRESS (through Fr. presse from Lat. pressare, frequentative of premere, to crush, squeeze, press)

press rollers to squeeze out superfluous liquors, D is the immersing roller in the second tank, and C', C' are the press rollers for the second tank . Drying cylinders E to E" may be arranged as " live-heat " cylinders, as secondary heated cylinders or as air drying cylinders . The roller F directs the slivers into the back rollers G of the gill-See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box, which in turn delivers up the slivers to the fallers H, which in turn delivers the wool to the front rollers I .

Firstly, there is the preparing and spinning of the true worsted thread, this being made from long English and colonial wool . In this class should also be included mohair and alpaca . Secondly, there is the preparing and spinning of what are known as cross-bred and botany yarns, these being made from cross-bred and botany wools . Thirdly, there is the preparing and spinning of short botany wools on the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• SYSTEM

system . There is a See also:

• FOURTH

fourth class of worsted yarns, principally See also:

• CARPET

carpet and See also:

• KNITTING (from O.E. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. Knutten; the root is seen in " knot ")

knitting yarns, which are treated in a much readier manner than any of the foregoing, but as the treatment is analogous—with the elimination of certain processes—to the second of the foregoing, it is not necessary to refer specially to it . To obtain a sliver or " roving " which can be satisfactorily spun into a typical worsted thread the following operations are necessary :—preparing (five or six operations), back-washing, straightening, combing, straightening and drawing (say six operations), and finally spinning on the flyer frame . After long wool has been scoured and dried it is necessarily considerably entangled, and if it were to preparing be combed straight away a large propor- tion of the long fibres would be broken and combed out as " noil " or short fibre . To obviate this the wool is fed as straight as possible into a sheeter gill-box; after this it passes through other two sheeter gill-boxes, then through say three can gill-boxes . As shown in fig. to the main features of a preparing or gill-box are the following: the feed sheet upon which the wool is " made up," the back rollers B which take hold of the wool and deliver it to the fallers F which, working away from the back rollers more quickly than the wool is delivered, comb it out . The fallers in turn deliver the wool to the front rollers D, which, 'taking in the wool more quickly than the fallers delivering it, again draft and comb it, but with a reversing of the former combing operation . The wool emerges from the front rollers as thin attenuated continuous fibre about 12 in. wide, which is wound upon an endless See also:

• LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Leder, Dutch leer or leder, Swed. leder, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh llader)
• LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL

leather sheet H from which the box takes its name . When a sliver of sufficient thickness has been wound upon the sheet, it is broken across and fed up at the next gill-box .

The fourth gill-box delivers into cans instead of on to a sheet . A number of cans are then placed behind the fifth box and the slivers from these fed up into the back rollers, and similarly with the See also:

• SIXTH

sixth . The See also:

• PRIMARY

primary object of " preparing " or Billing is to straighten and parallelize the fibres in the sliver . This is effected by means of the combining or doubling and drafting to which the slivers are subjected . In addition to this, how-ever, a level sliver suitable for combing is formed by the combined action of the drafting and doubling which has taken place at each box . Oil will have been added to the wool at the first preparing-box to cause the fibres to work well . Back- Were this all, there would perhaps not washing, be the necessity for back-washing . But the slivers during their passage through the preparing-boxes become sullied naturally, and in addition, owing to the opening out of the locks of wool, dirt which was not " got at " in the scouring now works out and further sullies the slivers . It is consequently necessary to 1 of two scouring tanks with im