See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ICE (a word See also:

• COMMON

common to See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

Teutonic See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages; cf. Ger. Eis)  , the solid crystalline See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form which See also:

• WATER

water assumes when exposed to a sufficiently See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low temperature . It is a colourless crystalline substance, assuming forms belonging to the hexagonal See also:

• SYSTEM

system, and distinguished by a well-marked See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of twinning, which occasions the beautiful " See also:

• ICE (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Eis)

ice See also:

• FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL

flowers" displayed by See also:

• HOAR, SAMUEL (1778-1856)

hoar-See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost . It is frequently precipitated as hoar-frost, See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow or See also:

• HAIL (O. Eng. kcegl and hagol, 1 cf. the cognate Teutonic hagel, as in German, Dutch, Swedish, &c.; the Gr. K&XX17E, pebble, is probably allied)

hail; and in the glaciers and snows of lofty See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain systems or of regions of high See also:

• LATITUDE (Lat. latitudo, latus, broad)

latitude it exists on a gigantic See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale, being especially characteristic of the seas and lands around the poles . In various regions, especially in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, See also:

• GREAT

great quantities of ice form in caves, which, in virtue of their See also:

• DEPTH

depth below the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth's See also:

• SURFACE

surface, their height above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-level, or their exposure to suitable winds, or to two or more of these conditions in See also:

• COMBINATION (Lat. combinare, to combine)

combination, are unaffected by See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic changes, so that the mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature is sufficiently low to ensure the permanency of the ice . The temperature at which water freezes, and also at which ice melts, is so readily determined that it is employed as one of the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard temperatures in the See also:

• GRADUATION (see also GRADUATE)

graduation of ordinary thermometer scales, this temperature being the zero of the Centigrade and See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur scales, and 32° of the See also:

• FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686–1936)

Fahrenheit (see See also:

• THERMOMETRY (Gr. Bepµos, warm; µerpov, a measure)

THERMOMETRY) . In the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of freezing, water, though its temperature remains unchanged, undergoes a remarkable expansion so that ice at o° C. is less dense than water—a fact demonstrated by its See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of floating . The sub-aqueous retention of " ground-ice " or " See also:

• ANCHOR (from the Greek ayrcvpa, which Vossius considers is from 6yi17 , a crook or hook)

anchor-ice," which forms in certain circumstances at the bottom of streams or pools in which there are many eddies, is due to the cohesion between it and ,the stones or rocks which compose the See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of the streams or pools . As water expands on freezing, so conversely ice contracts on melting; and the ice-See also:

• COLD (in O. Eng. cald and ceald, a word coming ultimately from a root cognate with the Lat. gelu, gelidus, and common in the Teutonic languages, which usually have two distinct forms for the substantive and the adjective, cf. Ger. Kolte, kalt, Dutch koude

cold water thus formed continues to See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract when heated until it has reached its point of maximum See also:

• DENSITY (Lat. densus, thick)

density, the temperature at which this occurs being about 39° Fahr. or 4° C . Above this point water continuously expands, and at no temperature is it less dense than ice as is shown by the following table: Density of ice at o°C . _ •9195 „ water at o°C . = .99988 4°C . = 1.00000 io°C.= •99976 See also:

• IOO

ioo°C.= .95866 Under the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, ice itself behaves as most solids do, contracting when cooled, expanding when heated .

According to See also:

• PLUCKER, JULIUS (18or-1868)

Plucker, the coefficient of cubical See also:

• DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and lotus, wide)

dilatation at moderately low temperatures is 0.0001585 . From a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of elaborate experiments, See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

Person deduced 0.505 as the specific heat of ice, or about See also:

• HALF

half that of water . Though no rise of temperature accompanies the melting of ice, there is yet a definite quantity of heat absorbed, namely, about 8o calories per See also:

• GRAM

gram; this is called the latent heat of See also:

• FUSION

fusion of water (see FusloN) . The same amount of heat is evolved when water becomes ice . That ice can be melted by increase of pressure was first pointed out by See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• THOMSON, JAMES (1822-1892)
• THOMSON, JAMES (1834-1882)
• THOMSON, JAMES (r700-1748)
• THOMSON, JOHN (1778-184o)
• THOMSON, JOSEPH (1858-1895)
• THOMSON, SIR CHARLES WYVILLE (1830-1882)
• THOMSON, THOMAS (1773-1852)
• THOMSON, WILLIAM (1819-189o)

Thomson in 1849 . He showed that, since water expands on freezing, the See also:

• LAWS

laws of See also:

• THERMODYNAMICS (from Gr. Bepµos, hot, Siva trs, force)

thermodynamics require that its freezing-point must be lowered by increase of pressure; and he calculated that for every additional See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of pressure the freezing-point of water was lowered by 0.0075° . This result was verified by his See also:

• BROTHER

brother, See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William Thomson (See also:

• LORD
• LORD (O. Eng. hldford, i.e. hldfweard, the warder or keeper of bread, hlIf, loaf; the word is not represented in any other Teutonic language)
• LORD, JOHN (1810-1894)

Lord See also:

• KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, BARON (1824-1907)

Kelvin), in r85o . The Themsons and H . L . F . See also:

• HELMHOLTZ, HERMANN LUDWIG FERDINAND VON (1821-1894)

Helmholtz successfully applied this behaviour of ice under pressure to the explanation of many properties of the substance . When two blocks of ice at o° C. are pressed together or even simply laid in contact, they gradually unite along their touching surfaces till they form one See also:

• BLOCK
• BLOCK (from the Fr. bloc, and possibly connected with an Old Ger. Block, obstruction, cf. " baulk ")
• BLOCK, MAURICE (1816–19or)

block .

This " regelation " is due to the increased pressure at the various points of contact causing the ice there to melt and cool . The water so formed tends to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, thus relieving the pressure for an instant, refreezing and returning to the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original temperature . This See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of melting and freezing, with their accompanying thermal effects, goes on until the two blocks are cemented into one . Ice forms over fresh water if the temperature of the See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air has been for a sufficient See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time at or below the freezing-point; but not until the whole See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of water has been cooled down to its point of maximum density, so that the subsequent cooling of the surface can give rise to no convection currents, is freezing possible . Sea-water, in the most favourable circumstances, does not freeze till its temperature is reduced to about -2° C.; and the ice, when formed, is found to have rejected four-fifths of the See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

salt which was originally See also:

• PRESENT

present . In the upper provincesof See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India water is made to freeze during cold clear nights by leaving it overnight in porous vessels, or in bottles which are enwrapped in moistened See also:

• CLOTH

cloth . The water then freezes in virtue of the cold produced by its own evaporation or by the drying of the moistened wrapper . In See also:

• BENGAL
• BENGAL, BAY OF

Bengal the natives resort to a still more elaborate forcing of the conditions . Pits are dug about 2 ft. deep and filled three-quarters full with dry See also:

• STRAW

straw, on which are set See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat porous pans containing the water to be frozen . Exposed overnight to a cool dry See also:

• GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging to the same gens, or family)

gentle See also:

• WIND
• WIND (a common Teut. word, cognate with Skt. vats, Lat. ventus, cf. " weather," to be of course distinguished from to " wind," to coil or twist, O.Eng. windan, cf. "wander," "wend," &c.)

wind from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west, the water evaporates at the expense of its own heat, and the consequent cooling takes See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place with sufficient rapidity to overbalance the slow influx of heat from above through the cooled dense air or from below through the badly conducting straw . See WATER, and for the manufacture of ice see See also:

• REFRIGERATING

REFRIGERATING .