See also:

• ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. LxObs, fish, and Xoyos, doctrine or treatise)

ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. LxObs, See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish, and Xoyos, See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine or See also:

• TREATISE

treatise)  , the See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch of See also:

• ZOOLOGY (from Gr. Nov, a living thing, and ?byos, theory)

zoology which treats of the See also:

• INTERNAL

internal and See also:

• EXTERNAL

external structure of fishes, their mode of See also:

• LIFE

life, and their See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution in space and See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time . According to the views now generally adopted, all those vertebrate animals are referred to the class of fishes which combine the following characteristics: they live in See also:

• WATER

water, and by means of gills or branchiae breathe See also:

• AIR (from an Indo-European root meaning " breathe," " blow ")
• AIR, or ASBEN

air dissolved in water; the See also:

• HEART
• HEART, LUNG

heart consists of a single ventricle and single See also:

• ATRIUM (either from ater, black, referring to the blackening of the walls from the smoke of the hearth, or from the Greek aiOpeov, open to the sky, or from an Etruscan town, Atria, where the style of building is supposed to have originated)

atrium; the limbs, if See also:

• PRESENT

present, are modified into fins, supplemented by unpaired median fins; and the skin is either naked or covered with scales or with osseous plates or bucklers . With few exceptions fishes are oviparous . There are, however, not a few members of this class which show a modification of one or more of these characteristics, and which, nevertheless, cannot be separated from it . I . See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY AND LITERATURE DOWN TO 1880 The commencement of the history of See also:

• ICHTHYOLOGY (from Gr. LxObs, fish, and Xoyos, doctrine or treatise)

ichthyology coincides with that of zoology generally . See also:

• ARISTOTLE
• ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.)

Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) had a perfect knowledge of the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general structure of fishes, which he clearly discriminates both from the aquatic animals with lungs and mammae, i.e . Cetaceans, and from the various See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of aquatic invertebrates . According to him: " the See also:

• SPECIAL

special characteristics of the true fishes consist in the branchiae and fins, the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority having four fins, but those of an elongate See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form, as the eels, having two only . Some, as the See also:

• MURAENA

Muraena, lack the fins altogether . The rays swim with their whole See also:

• BODY

body, which is spread out . The branchiae are sometimes furnished with an operculum, sometimes they are without one, as in the cartilaginous fishes .

. . . No See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

fish has hairs or feathers; most are covered with scales, but some have only a rough or a smooth skin . The See also:

• TONGUE (O. Eng. lunge)

tongue is hard, often toothed, and sometimes so much adherent that it seems to be wanting . The eyes have no lids, nor are any ears or nostrils visible, for what takes the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of nostrils is a See also:

• BLIND, MATHILDE (1841—1896)

blind cavity; nevertheless they have the senses of tasting, smelling and See also:

• HEARING (formed from the verb " to hear," O. Eng. hyran, heron, &c., a common Teutonic verb; cf. Ger. Koren, Dutch hooren, &c.; the O. Tent. form is seen in Goth. hausjan; the initial h makes any connexion with " ear," Lat. audire, or Gr. &Kobew very doub

hearing . All have See also:

• BLOOD

blood . All scaly fishes are oviparous, but the cartilaginous fishes (with the exception of the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-See also:

• DEVIL (Gr. &a,3oXos, " slanderer," from &ctflisXX sty, to slander)

devil, which Aristotle places along with them) are viviparous . All have a heart, See also:

• LIVER (O. Eng. lifer; cf. cognate forms, Dutch lever, Ger. Leber, Swed. lefver, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are libara, lipora, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. i'prap and Lat. jecur)

liver and See also:

• GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch gal, and Ger. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. xoXi,, and Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow," with reference to the colour of bile)
• GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828)

gall-See also:

• BLADDER (from A.S. blaeddre, connected with bl¢wan, to blow, cf. Ger. blase)

bladder; but kidneys and urinary bladder are absent . They vary much in the structure of their intestines: for, whilst the See also:

• MULLET

mullet has ' a fleshy See also:

• STOMACH (Gr. vrbsaxos from arbga, a mouth)

stomach like a See also:

• BIRD

bird, others have no stomachic See also:

• DILATATION (from Lat. dis-, distributive, and lotus, wide)

dilatation . Pyloric caeca are See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the stomach, and vary in number; there are even some, like the majority of the cartilaginous fishes, which have none whatever . Two bodies are situated along the spine, which have the See also:

• FUNCTION

function of testicles; they open towards the vent, and are much enlarged in the spawning See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season . The scales become harder with See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age . Not being provided with lungs, fishes have no See also:

• VOICE (Fr. voix, from Lat. vox)

voice, but several can emit grunting sounds .

They See also:

• SLEEP (0. Eng. slcepan; Ger. schlafen; cf. Lat. labi, to glide, and " slip ")

sleep like other animals . In most cases the See also:

• FEMALES

females exceed the See also:

• MALES

males in See also:

• SIZE

size; and in the rays and sharks the male is distinguished by an appendage on each See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the vent." Aristotle's See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information on the habits of fishes, their migrations, See also:

• NODE (Lat. nodus, a loop)

node and time of See also:

• PROPAGATION

propagation, and economic uses is, so far as it has been tested, surprisingly correct . Unfortunately, we too often lack the means of recognizing the See also:

• SPECIES

species of which he gives a description . His ideas of specific distinction were as vague as those of the fishermen whose nomenclature he adopted; it never occurred to him that See also:

• VERNACULAR (Lat. verna, dim. vernaculus, a slave horn in his master's house)

vernacular names are subject to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change, or maybe entirely lost in course of time, and the difficulty of identifying his species is further increased by the circumstance that sometimes several popular names are applied by him to the same fish, or different stages of growth are designated by distinct names . The number of fishes known to Aristotle seems to have been about one See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred and fifteen, all of which are inhabitants of the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean Sea . That one See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man should have laid so sure a basis for future progress in zoology is less surprising than that for about eighteen centuries a See also:

• SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire; to learn, know)

science which seemed to offer particular attractions to men gifted with See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of observation was no further advanced . Yet such is the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case . Aristotle's successors remained satisfied to be his copiers or commentators, and to collect fabulous stories or vague notions . With few exceptions (such as See also:

• AUSONIUS, DECIMUS MAGNUS (c. 310-395)

Ausonius, who wrote a small poem, in which he describes from his own observations the fishes of the Moselle) authors abstained from See also:

• ORIGINAL

original See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research; and it was not until about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the 16th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century that ichthyology made a new step in advance by the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of See also:

• BELON, PIERRE (1517-1564)

Belon, Rondelet and Salviani, who almost simultaneously published their See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• WORKS

works, by which the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of species was established . P . Belon travelled in the countries bordering on the eastern See also:

• PART

part of the Mediterranean in the years 1547–1550; he collected Belon . See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich stores of See also:

• POSITIVE (or PORTABLE) ORGAN

positive knowledge, which he embodied in several works .

The one most important for the progress of ichthyology is that entitled De aquatilibus libri duo (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1JJ3) . Belon knew about one hundred and ten fishes, of which he gives See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude but generally recognizable figures . Although Belon rarely gives See also:

• DEFINITIONS

definitions of the terms used by him, it is not generally very difficult to ascertain the limits which he intended to assign to each See also:

• DIVISION (from Lat. dividere, to break up into parts, separate)

division of aquatic animals . He very properly divides them into such as are provided with blood and those without it—two divisions corresponding in See also:

• MODERN

modern See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language to vertebrate and invertebrate aquatic animals . The former are classified by him according to size, the further sub-divisions being based on the structure of the See also:

• SKELETON

skeleton, mode of propagation, number of limbs, form of the body and See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the See also:

• HABITAT (a French word derived from habiter, Lat. habitare, to dwell)

habitat . The See also:

• WORK

work of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman ichthyologist H . Salviani (1514–1572), bears See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the high social position which the author Sealant. held as physician to three popes . Its See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title is Aquatilium animalium historia (See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome, 1554–1557, fol.) . It treats exclusively of the fishes of See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy . Ninety-two species are figured on seventy-six plates, which, as regards See also:

• ARTISTIC

artistic See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution, are masterpieces of that See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, although those specific characteristics which nowadays constitute the value of a zoological See also:

• DRAWING

drawing were overlooked by the author or artist . No See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt is made at a natural See also:

• CLASSIFICATION (Lat. classis, a class, probably from the root cal-, cla-, as in Gr. icaMce, clamor)

classification, but the allied forms are generally placed in close proximity . The descriptions are equal to those given by Belon, entering much into the details of the See also:

• ECONOMY

economy and uses of the several species, and were evidently composed with the view of See also:

• COLLECTING

collecting in a readable form all that might prove of See also:

• INTEREST

interest to the class of society in which the author moved .

Salviani's work is of a high See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order . It could not fail to render ichthyology popular in the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country to the See also:

• FAUNA

fauna of which it was devoted, but it was not fitted to advance ichthyology as a science generally; in this respect Salviani is not to he compared with Rondelet or Belon . G . Rondelet (1507–1557) had the great See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage over Belon of having received a medical See also:

• EDUCATION

education at Paris, and especially Rondelet. of having gone through a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete.course of instruction in See also:

• ANATOMY
• ANATOMY (Gr. avaroyil, from ava-silo c', to cut up)

anatomy as a See also:

• PUPIL (Lat. pupillus, orphan, minor, dim. of pupus, boy, allied to puer, from root pm- or peu-, to beget, cf. "pupa," Lat. for " doll," the name given to the stage intervening between the larval and imaginal stages in certain insects)

pupil cf Guentherus of See also:

• ANDERNACH

Andernach . This is conspicuous throughout his works—Libri de piscibus ntarinis (See also:

• LYONS
• LYONS (Fr. Lyon)
• LYONS, COUNCILS OF
• LYONS, EDMUND LYONS, BARON (1790-1858)
• LYONS, RICHARD BICKERTON PEMELL LYONS, 1ST EARL (1817–1887)

Lyons, 1554); and Universac aqualilium historiae pars allera (Lyons, 1555) . Nevertheless they cannot be regarded as more than considerably enlarged See also:

• EDITIONS

editions of Belon's work . For, although he worked independently of the latter, the See also:

• SYSTEM

system adopted by him is characterized by the same See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of the true principles of classification . His work is almost entirely limited to See also:

• EUROPEAN

European and chiefly to Mediterranean forms, and comprises no fewer than one hundred and ninety-seven marine and See also:

• FORTY

forty-seven fresh-water fishes . His descriptions are more complete and his figures much more accurate than those of Belon; and the specific See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account is preceded by See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory chapters, in which he treats in a general manner of the distinctions, the external and internal parts, and the economy of fishes . Like Belon, he had no conception of the various categories of classification—confounding throughout his work the terms " genus " and " species," but he had an intuitive notion of what his successors called a " species," and his See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• OBJECT

object was to give as much information as possible regarding such species . For nearly a century the works of Belon and Rondelet continued to be the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard works on ichthyology; but the science did not remain stationary during that period . The See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention of naturalists was now directed to the fauna of See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign countries, especially of the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish and Dutch possessions in the New See also:

• WORLD

World; and in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of anatomical See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools and See also:

• ACADEMIES

academies led to careful investigation of the internal anatomy of the most remarkable European forms .

Limited as these efforts were as to their See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope, they were sufficiently numerous to enlarge the views of naturalists, and to destroy that fatal dependence on preceding authorities which had kept in bonds even Rondelet and Belon . The most noteworthy of those engaged in these inquiries in tropical countries were W . See also:

• PISO

Piso and G . Marcgrave, who accompanied as physicians the Dutch See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor, See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count See also:

• MAURICE (1521–1553)
• MAURICE (MAURICIUS FLAVIUS TIBERIUS) (c. 539–602)
• MAURICE [or MAURITIUS], ST (d. c. 286)
• MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON (1805-1872)

Maurice of See also:

• NASSAU

Nassau, to See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil (1630–1644) . Of the men who See also:

• LEFT

left records of their anatomical researches, we may mention See also:

• BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO (1608-1679)

Borelli (1608–1679), who wrote a work De motu animalium (Rome, 168o, 4t0), in which he explained the mechanism of See also:

• SWIMMING (from " swim," A.S. swimman, the root being common in Teutonic languages)

swimming and the function of the air-bladder; M . See also:

• MALPIGHI, MARCELLO (1628-1694)

Malpighi (1628–1694), who examined the optic See also:

• NERVE (Lat. nervus, Gr. vevpov, a bowstring)

nerve of the See also:

• SWORD (0. Eng. sweord; ultimately from an Indo-European root meaning to wound)

sword-fish; the celebrated J . See also:

• SWAMMERDAM, JAN (1637-168o)

Swammerdam (1637–168o), who described the intestines of numerous fishes; and J . Duverney (1648–1730), who investigated in detail the See also:

• ORGANS

organs of respiration . A new era in the history of ichthyology commences with See also:

• RAY (Lat. raia)
• RAY (or WRAY, as he wrote his name till 1670), JOHN (1628-1705)

Ray, See also:

• WILLUGHBY, FRANCIS (1635—1672)

Willughby and See also:

• ARTEDI, PETER (17o5-1735)

Artedi, who were the first to recognize the true principles by which the natural See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities of animals should be determined . Their labours stand in so intimate a connexion with each other that they represent but one great step in the progress of this science . J . Ray (1628–1705) was the friend and See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide of F .

Willughby (1635–1672) . They found that a thorough reform in the method of treating the See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable and See also:

• ANIMAL
• ANIMAL (Lat. animalis, from anima, breath, soul)

animal kingdoms had become necessary; that the only way of bringing wi and order into the existing See also:

• CHAOS

chaos was by arranging the lugbby. various forms according to their structure . They therefore substituted facts for See also:

• SPECULATION

speculation, and one of the first results of this change, perhaps the most important, was that, having recognized "species" as such, they defined the See also:

• TERM

term and fixed it as the starting-point of all See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound zoological knowledge . Although they had divided their work so that Ray attended to the See also:

• PLANTS

plants principally, and Willughby to the animals, the Historia piscium (Oxf., 1686), which bears Willughby's name on the title-See also:

• PAGE
• PAGE, THOMAS NELSON (1853- )
• PAGE, WILLIAM (1811-1885)

page and was edited by Ray, is their See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production . A great part of the observations contained in it were collected during the journeys they made together in Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain and in the various countries of Europe . By the See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition of fishes as animals with blood, breathing by gills, provided with a single ventricle of the heart, and either covered with scales or naked, the Cetaceans are excluded . The fishes proper are arranged primarily according to the cartilaginous or the osseous nature of the skeleton, and then subdivided according to the general form of the body, the presence or the absence of ventral fins, the soft or the vinous structure of the dorsal rays, the number of dorsal fins, &c . No fewer than four hundred and twenty species arc thus arranged and described, of which about one hundred and eighty were known to the authors from See also:

• PERSONAL

personal examination—a comparatively small proportion, but descriptions and figures still formed in great measure the substitute for our modern collections and museums . With the increasing See also:

• ACCUMULATION (from Lat. accumulare, to heap up)

accumulation of forms, the want of a fixed nomenclature had become more and more See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt . See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter Artedi ('705-1734) would have been a great ichthyologist if Ray or Willughby had not preceded him . But he was fully Arteat conscious of the fact that both had prepared the way for him, and therefore he did not fail to reap every possible advantage from their labours . His work, edited by See also:

• LINNAEUS

Linnaeus, is divided as follows: (x) In the Bibliotheca ichthyologica Artedi gives a very complete See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of all preceding authors. who had writtenon fishes, with a See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis of their works .

(2) The Philosophia ichthyologica is devoted to a description of the external and internal parts of fishes; Artedi fixes a precise terminology for all the various modifications of the organs, distinguishing between those characters which determine a genus and such as indicate a species or merely a variety; in fact he establishes the method and principles which subsequently have guided every systematic ichthyologist . (3) The Genera pescsum contains well-defined diagnoses of forty-five genera, for which he has fixed an unchangeable nomenclature . (4) In the Species pisoium descriptions of seventy-two species, examined by himself, are_ given—descriptions which even now are See also:

• MODELS

models of exactitude and method . (5) Finally, in the Synonymia psscium references to all previous authors are arranged for every species, very much in the manner which is adopted'in the systematic works of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . Artedi has been justly called the See also:

• FATHER

father of ichthyology . So admirable was his treatment of 'the subject, that even Linnaeus Linnaeus. could only modify and add to it . Indeed, so far as ichthyology is concerned, Linnaeus has scarcely done anything beyond applying binominal terms to the species properly described and classified by Artedi . His classification of the genera appears in the 12th edition of the Systema thus: A, See also:

• AMPHIBIA

Amphibia nantia.—Spiraculis compositis.-Petromyzon, Raia, Squalus, See also:

• CHIMAERA

Chimaera . Spiraculis solitaries: Lophius, Acipenser, Cyclopterus, Baiistes, Ostracion, Tetrodon, Diodon, Centriscus, Syngnathus . See also:

• PEGASUS (from Gr. lrgyor, compact, strong)

Pegasus . B . See also:

• PISCES (the fishes)

Pisces a¢odes.-Muraena, Gymnotus, Trichiurus, Anarrhichas, Ammodytes, Ophidium, Stromateus, Xiphias .

C . Pisces jugulares.—Callionymus, Uranoscopus, Trachinus, Gadus, Blennius . D . Pisces taoracici.-Cepola, Echeneis, Coryphaena, See also:

• GOBI (for which alternative Chinese names are SHA-MO, " sand desert," and HAN-HAI, " dry sea ")

Gobi's, Cottus, Scorpaena,See also:

• ZEUS

Zeus, Pleuronectes, Chaetodon, Spares, Labials, Sciaena, Perca, Gasterosteus, Scomber, Mullus, Trigla . E .. Pisces abdominales.—Cobitis, Amia, See also:

• SILURES

Silures, Teuthis, Lori See also:

• CARIA

caria, Salmo, Fistularia, Esox, Elops, See also:

• ARGENTINA

Argentina, Atherina, Mugil, Mormyrus, Exocoetus, Polynemus, Clupea, Cyprinus . Two, contemporaries of Linnaeus, L . T . Gronow and J . T . See also:

• KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876)

Klein, attempted a systematic arrangement of fishes . The works of Artedi and Linnaeus led See also:

• TOWN

town activity of research, especially in Scandinavia, See also:

• HOLLAND
• HOLLAND, CHARLES (1733–1769)
• HOLLAND, COUNTY AND PROVINCE OF
• HOLLAND, HENRY FOX, 1ST BARON (1705–1774)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICH, 1ST EARL OF (1S9o-,649)
• HOLLAND, HENRY RICHARD VASSALL FOX, 3RD
• HOLLAND, JOSIAH GILBERT (1819-1881)
• HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637)
• HOLLAND, RICHARD, or RICHARD DE HOLANDE (fl. 1450)
• HOLLAND, SIR HENRY, BART

Holland, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, such as has never been equalled in the history of biological science .

Whilst some of the pupils and followers of Linnaeus devoted themselves to the examination and study of the fauna of their native countries,others proceeded on voyages of See also:

• DISCOVERY

discovery to foreign and distant lands . Of these latter the following may be especially mentioned: O . See also:

• FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. " the one-eyed ")
• FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571)
• FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736)
• FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-18o8)

Fabricius worked out the fauna of See also:

• GREENLAND (Danish, &c., Gronland)

Greenland; Peter Kalm collected in See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America, . F . See also:

• HASSELQUIST, FREDERIK (1722-1752)

Hasselquist in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine, M . T . Brunnich in the Mediterranean, Osbeck in See also:

• JAVA

Java and See also:

• CHINA

China, K . P . See also:

• THUNBERG, KARL PETER (1743-1828)

Thunberg in See also:

• JAPAN

Japan; See also:

• FORSKAL, PETER (1736-1763)

Forskal examined and described the fishes of the Red Sea; G . W . Steller, P . S .

See also:

• PALLAS, PETER SIMON (1741–1811)

Pallas, S . G . See also:

• GMELIN

Gmelin, and A . J . Guldenstadt traversed nearly the whole of the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• EMPIRE

empire in Europe and See also:

• ASIA

Asia . Others attached themselves as naturalists to celebrated navigators, such as the two Forsters (father and son) and Solander, who accompanied See also:

• COOK
• COOK, ALBERT STANBURROUGH (1853– )
• COOK, EDWARD DUTTON (1829–1883)
• COOK, ELIZA (1818–1889)
• COOK, JAMES (1728-1779)
• COOK, THOMAS (1808-1892)

Cook; P . Commerson, who travelled with See also:

• BOUGAINVILLE, LOUIS ANTOINE DE (1729-1811)

Bougainville; and See also:

• PIERRE

Pierre Sonnerat . Of those who studied the fishes of their native countries, the most celebrated were See also:

• PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798)

Pennant (Great Britain), O . F . See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller (See also:

• DENMARK
• DENMARK (Danmark)

Denmark), See also:

• DUHAMEL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1624-1706)

Duhamel du Monceau (See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France), C. von Meidinger (See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria), J . Cornide (See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain), and A . Parra (See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba) .

The See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of materials brought together was so great that, not See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long after the See also:

• DEATH

death of Linnaeus, the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity made itself felt for collecting them in a compendious form . Several compilers undertook this task; they embodied the See also:

• RECENT

recent discoveries in new editions of the classical works of Artedi and Linnaeus, but,they only succeeded in burying those See also:

• NOBLE, SIR ANDREW (1832- )

noble monuments under a chaotic mass of rubbish . For ichthyology it was fortunate that two men at least, See also:

• BLOCH, MARK ELIEZER (c. 1723–1799)

Bloch and Lacepede, made it a subject of prolonged original research . See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

Mark Eliezer Bloch (1723-1799), a physician of See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, had reached the age of fifty-six when he began to write on ichthyological subjects . His work consists of two divisions:- Btoch (,1) Oconomische Naturgeschichte der Fische See also:

• DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873)

Deutsch- lends . (Berl., 1782-1784); (2) Naturgeschichte der ausltindischen Fische (Berl., 1785-1795) . The first division, which is devoted to a description of the fishes of Germany, is entirely original . His descriptions as well as figures were made from nature, and are, with few exceptions, still serviceable; indeed many continue to be the best existing in literature . Bloch was less fortunate, and is much less trustworthy, in his natural history of foreign fishes . For many of the species he had to See also:

• TRUST

trust to more or less incorrect drawings and descriptions by travellers; frequently, also, he was deceivedas to the origin of specimens which he See also:

• PURCHASED

purchased . Hence his accounts contain numerous errors, which it would have been difficult to correct had not nearly the whole of the materials on which his work is based been preserved in the collections at Berlin . After the completion of his great work Bloch prepared a general system of fishes, in which he arranged not only, those previously described, but also those with which he had afterwards become acquainted .

The work was ably edited and published after Bloch's death by a; philologist, J . G . See also:

• SCHNEIDER, JOHANN GOTTLOB (1750-1822)
• SCHNEIDER, LOUIS (1805-1878)

Schneider, under the title M . E . Blochii Systema ichthyologiae . iconibus ex. illustratum (Berl., i8ox) . The number of species enumerated amounts to 1519 . The system is based upon the number of the fins, the various orders being termed Hendecapterygii, Decapterygii, &c . An artificial method like this led to the most unnatural combinations and distinctions . Bloch's Naturgeschichte remained for many years the standard work . But as regards originality of thought Bloch was far surpassed by his contemporary, B . G . E. de Lacepede, See also:

• BORN, IGNAZ, EDLER VON (1742–1791)

born at See also:

• AGEN

Agen,in France, in 1756, who became See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

professor at the museum of natural history in Paris, where he died in 1825 .

Lacepede had to contend with great difficulties in the preparations of his Histoire See also:

• DES

des poissons (Paris, 1798-1803, 5 vols.), which was written during the most disturbed period Lacepede. of the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French Revolution . A great part of it was composed whilst the author was separated from collections and books, and had to rely on his notes and See also:

• MANUSCRIPTS

manuscripts only . Even the works of Bloch and other contemporaneous authors remained unknown or inaccessible to him for a long time . His work, therefore, abounds in the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of errors into which a compiler is liable to fall . Thus the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of Lacepede on the progress of ichthyology was vastly less than that of his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-labourer; and the labour laid on his successors in correcting numerous errors probably outweighed the assistance which they derived from his work . The work of the principal students of ichthyology in the period between Ray and Lacepede was chiefly systematizing and describing; but the internal organization of fishes also received attention from more than one great anatomist . Albrecht von See also:

• HALLER, ALBRECHT VON (1708–1777)
• HALLER, BERTHOLD (1492–1536)

Haller, Peter See also:

• CAMPER, PETER (1722-1789)

Camper and See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• HUNTER, JOHN (1728-1793)
• HUNTER, ROBERT MERCER TALIAFERRO (r8o9-1887)
• HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM WILSON (1840-19oo)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM (1718–1783)
• HUNTER, WILLIAM ALEXANDER (1844-1898)

Hunter examined the See also:

• NERVOUS

nervous system and the organs of sense; and See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• MONRO, DAVID BINNING (1836-1905)

Monro, See also:

• SECUNDUS, JOHANNES
• SECUNDUS, PUBLIUS POMPONIUS

secundus, published a classical work, The Structure and See also:

• PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. 4 i s, nature, and koyos, discourse)

Physiology of Fishes Explained and Compared with those of Man and other Animals (Edin., 1785) . The electric organs of fishes (See also:

• TORPEDO

Torpedo and . Gymnotus) were examined by See also:

• REAUMUR, RENE ANTOINE FERCHAULT DE (1683-1757)

Reaumur, J . N . S . Allamand, E .

See also:

• BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800—1891)
• BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832– )
• BANCROFT, RICHARD (1544–161o)
• BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841– )

Bancroft, John See also:

• WALSH, JOHN HENRY (1810-1888)
• WALSH, PETER [VALESIUS] (c. 1618-1688)
• WALSH, WILLIAM (1663—1708)

Walsh, and still more exactly by J . Hunter . The See also:

• MYSTERY (Gr. µw(Trilpcov, from tcuvrm, an initiate, µfew, to shut the mouth)

mystery of the propagation of the See also:

• EEL

eel called forth a large number of essays, and even the artificial propagation of Sal monidae was known and practised by J . G . Gleditsch(1.764) . Bloch and Lacepede's works were almost immediately succeeded by the labours of See also:

• CUVIER, GEORGES LEOPOLD CHRETIEN FREDERIC DAGOBERT, BARON (1769-1832)

Cuvier, but his See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early publications were tentative, preliminary and fragmentary, so that some little time elapsed before the spirit infused into ichthyology by this great anatomist could exercise its influence on all the workers in this See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field . The Descriptions and Figures of Two Hundred Fishes collected at Vieagapatam on the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

Coast of Coromandel (Lend., 1803, 2 vols.) by See also:

• PATRICK, SIMON (1626–1707)
• PATRICK, ST

Patrick Russel, and An Account of the Fishes found in the See also:

• RIVER

River See also:

• GANGES (GANGA)

Ganges and its Branches (Edin., 1822, 2 vols.) by F . See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton (formerly See also:

• BUCHANAN
• BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS
• BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506–1582)
• BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868)
• BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901)

Buchanan), were works distinguished by greater accuracy of the drawings (especially the latter) than was ever attained before . A Natural History of See also:

• BRITISH

British Fishes was published by E . See also:

• DONOVAN, EDWARD (1768–1837)

Donovan (Lend., 1802-1808) ; and the Mediterranean fauna formed the study of the lifetime of A . Risso, Ichthyologie de See also:

• NICE

Nice (Paris, 181o); and Histoire naturelle de l'Europe meridionale (Paris, 1827) . A slight beginning in the description of the fishes of the See also:

• UNITED

United States was made by See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel Latham See also:

• MITCHELL
• MITCHELL, DONALD GRANT (1822—1908)
• MITCHELL, MARIA (1818—1889)
• MITCHELL, SILAS WEIR (1830-)
• MITCHELL, SIR THOMAS LIVINGSTONE (1792-1855)

Mitchell (1764-1831), who published, besides various papers, a Memoir on the Ichthyolagy.of New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, in 1815 .

G . Cuvier (1769-1832) devoted himself to the study of fishes with particular predilection . The investigation of their anatomy, Gtvter. and especially of their skeleton, was continued until he had succeeded in completing so perfect a See also:

• FRAME

frame-work of the system of the whole class that his immediate successors required only to fill up those details for which their See also:

• MASTER (Lat. magister, related to tnagis, more, as the corresponding minister is to minus, less; the English form is due partly to the O. Eng. maegister, and partly to O. Fr. maistre, mod. maitre; cf. Du. meester, Ger. Meister, Ital. maestro)

master had had no leisure . He ascertained the natural affinities of the See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite variety of farms, and accurately defined the divisions, orders, families and genera of the class, as they appear in the various editions of the Regne Animal . His See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry equalled his See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius; he formed connections with almost every accessible part of the globe; and for many years the museum of the Jardin des Plantes was- the centre where all ichthyological treasures were deposited . Thus Cuvier brought together a collection which, as it contains all the materials on which his labours were based, must still be considered as the most important . Soon after the See also:

• YEAR

year r82o, Cuvier, assisted vatea_ by one of his pupils, A . See also:

• VALENCIENNES

Valenciennes, commenced clennes. his great work on fishes, Historic naturelle des Poissons, of which the first See also:

• VOLUME

volume appeared in 1828 . After Cuvier's death in 1832 the work was left entirely in the hands of Valenciennes, whose See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and interest gradually slackened, rising to their former See also:

• PITCH
• PITCH, MUSICAL

pitch in some parts only, as, for instance, in the See also:

• TREATISE

treatise, on the See also:

• HERRING (Clupea harengus, Haring in German, le hareng in French, sill in Swedish)

herring . He left the work unfinished with the twenty-second volume (1848), which treats of the Salmonoids . Yet, incomplete as it is, it is indispensable to the student . The system finally adopted by Cuvier is the following: A .

POISSONS OSSEUX . I . A BRANCHIES EN PEIGNES OU EN LAMES . I . A Mdchoire Superieure Libre . a . Acanthopteryglens . Percoides . Sparoides . Branchies labyrinthiques . Polynemes . Chetodonoides .

Lophioides . Mulles . Scomberoides . Gobioides . Joues cuirassees Muges . Labroides . Scienoides . b . Malacopterygiens . Abdominaux . Subbrachiens . A podes .

Cyprinoides . Gadoides . Murenoides . Siluroides . Pleuronectes . Salmonoides . Discoboles . Clupeoides . Lucioides . 2 . A Mdchoire, Superieure Fixee . Selerodermes .

Gymnodontes . II . A BRANCHIES EN FORME DE HOUPPES . Lophobranches . B . CARTILAGINEUX OU CHONDROPTERYGIENS . Sturioniens . Plagiostomes . Cyclostomes . We have only to compare this system with that of Linnaeus if we wish to measure the gigantic stride made by ichthyology during the intervening period of seventy years . The various characters employed for classification have been examined throughout the whole class, and their relative importance has been duly weighed and understood . The important See also:

• CATEGORY (Gr. Karrlyopia, " accusation ")

category of " See also:

• FAMILY

family " appears now in Cuvier's system fully established as intermediate between genus and order .

Important changes in Cuvier's system have been made and proposed by his successors, but in the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main it is still that of the present day . Cuvier had extended his researches beyond the living forms, into the field of palaeontology; he was the first to observe the close resemblance of the scales of the fossil Palaeoniscus to thoseof the living Polypterus and Lepidosteus, the prolongation and identity of structure of the upper caudal See also:

• LOBE

lobe in Palaeoniscus and the sturgeons, the presence of See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar " fulcra " on the anterior margin of the dorsal fin in Palaeoniscus and Lepidosteus, and inferred from these facts that the fossil genus was allied either to the sturgeons or to Lepidosteus . But it did not occur to him that there was a close relationship between those recent fishes . Lepidosteus and, with it, the fossil genus remained in. his system a member of the order of.Malacopterygii abdominales . It was left to L . See also:

• AGASSIZ, ALEXANDER EMANUEL (1835-191o)
• AGASSIZ, JEAN LOUIS RODOLPHE (1807-1893)

Agassiz (1807-1873) to point out the importance of the structure of the scales as a characteristic, and to open a path towards the knowledge of a whole new subclass Agassiz. of fishes, the Ganoidei . Impressed with the fact that the peculiar scales of Polypterus and Lepidosteus are See also:

• COMMON

common to all fossil osseous fishes down to the See also:

• CHALK

Chalk, he takes the structure of the scales generally as the See also:

• BASE

base for an ichthyological system, and distinguishes four orders: 1 . Plaeoids.—Without scales proper, but with scales of See also:

• ENAMEL (formerly " amel," derived through the Fr. amail, emmll, esmail, from a Latin word smaltum, first found in a 9th-century life of Leo IV.)

enamel, sometimes large, sometimes small, and reduced to See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere points (Rays, Sharks and Cyclostomi,,with the fossil Hybodontes) . 2 . Ganoids . With angular bony scales, covered with a thick stratum of enamel: to this order belong the fossil Lepidoides, Sauroides, Pycnodontes and Coelacanthi; the recent Polypterus, Lepidosteus, Sclerodermi, Gymnodontes, Lophobranches and Siluraides; also the Sturgeons . 3 .

Ctenoids.—With rough scales, which have their See also:

• FREE

free margins denticulated: Chaetodontidae, Pleuronectidae, Percidae, Poly-acanthi, Sciaenidae, Sparidae, Scorpaenidae, Aulostomi . 4 . Cycloids . —With smooth scales, the See also:

• HIND

hind margin of which lacks denticulation: Labridae, Mugilidae, Scombridae, Gadoidei, Gobiidae, Muraenidae, Lucioidei, Salmonidae, Clupeidae, Cyprinidae . If Agassiz had had an opportunity of acquiring a more extensive and intimate knowledge of existing fishes before his energies were absorbed in the study of fossil remains, he would doubtless have recognized the artificial character of his classification . The distinctions between See also:

• CYCLOID (from Gr. iciidws, circle, and ennos, form)

cycloid and ctenoid scales, between placoid and ganoid fishes, are vague, and can hardly be maintained . So far as the living and See also:

• POST

post-Cretacean forms are concerned, he abandoned the vantage-ground gained by Cuvier; and therefore his system could never supersede that of his predecessor, and finally shared the See also:

• FATE

fate of every classification based on the modifications of one See also:

• ORGAN

organ only . But Agassiz opened an immense new field of research by his study of the infinite variety of fossil forms . In his principal work, Recherches sur See also:

• LES

les poissons fossiles, See also:

• NEUCHATEL
• NEUCHATEL (Ger. Neuenburg)
• NEUCHATEL, LAKE OF

Neuchatel, 1833-1843, 4to, See also:

• ATLAS

atlas in fol., he placed them before the world arranged in a methodical manner, with excellent descriptions and illustrations . His power of discernment and penetration in determining even the most fragmentary remains is astonishing; and, if his order of Ganoids is an assemblage of forms very different from what is now understood by that term, he was the first who recognized that such an order of fishes exists . The discoverer of the Ganoidei was succeeded by their explorer Johannes Muller (18or-i858) . In his classical memoir Ober den Bau and See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die Grenzen der Ganoiden (Berl., 1846) he showed that the Ganoids differ from all the other osseous fishes, and agree with the Plagiostomes, in the structure of the heart .

By this See also:

• PRIMARY

primary character, all heterogeneous elements, as Siluroids, Osteoglossidae, &c., were eliminated from the order as understood. by Agassiz . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, he did not recognize the See also:

• AFFINITY (Lat. affinitas, relationship by marriage, from offinis, bordering on, related to; finis, border, boundary)
• AFFINITY, CHEMICAL

affinity of Lepidosiren to the Ganoids, but established for it a distinct subclass, Dipnoi, which he placed at the opposite end of the system . By his researches into the anatomy of the lampreys and See also:

• AMPHIOXUS, or LANCELET

Amphioxus, their typical distinctness from other caftilaginous fishes was proved; they became the types of two other subclasses, Cyclostomi and Leptocardii . Muller proposed several other modifications of the Cuvierian system; and, although all cannot be maintained as the most natural arrangements, yet his researches have given us a much more complete knowledge of the o