See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

WAR OF See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

INDEPENDENCE  .) On the 6th of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 182I See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

Prince See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• YPSILANTI
• YPSILANTI, or HYPSILANTI

Ypsilanti, son of the See also:

• HOSPODAR

hospodar See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine, and a See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general in the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian service, crossed the Pruth, proclaiming the revolt of the Greeks against the See also:

• SULTAN (an Arabic word meaning " victorious " or " a ruler," sultat, dominion)

sultan and the intention to restore the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East . But in the principalities, where the Vlach peasants regarded the Phanariots as worse oppressors than the See also:

• TURKS

Turks, the See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement had little See also:

• CHANCE (through the O. Fr. cheance, from the Late Lat. cadentia, things happening, from cadere, to fall out, happen; cf. " case ")

chance of success; it was doomed from the moment that the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor Alexander disavowed Ypsilanti's claim to his support (see ALEXANDER I.) . After some initial successes the Greeks were finally routed at the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of See also:

• DRAGASHANI (Rumanian Draga. ani)

Dragashani (See also:

• JUNE

June 19, 1821) . It was far otherwise with the insurrection which See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out at the beginning of See also:

• APRIL

April in the Morea . The Mussulman See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population of the Morea, taken unawares, was practically exterminated during the fury of the first few days; and, most fatal of all, the defection of the Greeks of the islands crippled the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman See also:

• NAVY

navy by depriving it of its only effective sailors . The barbarous See also:

• REPRISALS (Fr. represailles, from reprendre; Lat. reprehendere, to take back)

reprisals into which Sultan Mahmud allowed himself to be carried away only accentuated the difficulty of the situation . The See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution of the See also:

• PATRIARCH (M.E. and O. Fr. patriarche, Lat. patriarcha, Gr. aarpuipxtis, from srarptu., clan, and apxil, rule)

patriarch Gregorios, as technically responsible for the revolt, was an See also:

• OUTRAGE (through O. Fr. ultrage, oltrage, oultrage, from Lat. ultra, beyond, exceeding, cf. Ital. oltraggio; the meaning has been influenced by connexion with " rage," anger)

outrage to all Christendom; and it led at once to a See also:

• BREACH (Mid. Eng. breche, derived from the common Teutonic root brec, which appears in " break," Ger. brechen, &c.)

breach of See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic relations with See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia . To prevent this breach developing into See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war was now the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief study of the chanceries . Public See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion throughout See also:

• EUROPE

Europe was violently excited in favour of the Greeks; and this Philhellenic sentiment was shared even by some of the statesmen who most strenuously deprecated any interference in their favour . For at the outset Metternich was not alone in maintaining that the war should be allowed to See also:

• BURN, RICHARD (1709-1785)

burn itself out " beyond the See also:

• PALE (through Fr. pal, from Lat. palms, a stake, for paglus, from the stem pag- of pangere, to fix; " pole " is from the same original source)

pale of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization." The mutual slaughter of barbarians in the See also:

• LEVANT

Levant seemed, even to See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• CANNING, CHARLES JOHN, EARL (1812-1862)
• CANNING, GEORGE (1770-1827)

Canning, a lesser evil than a renewed See also:

• ARMAGEDDON

Armageddon in Europe; and all the resources of See also:

• DIPLOMACY (Fr. diplomatic)

diplomacy were set in See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion to heal the rupture between See also:

• TURKEY

Turkey and • Russia . In spite of the emperor Alexander's engagements to the See also:

• GRAND

Grand See also:

• ALLIANCE

Alliance and the ideal of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, this was no easy See also:

• MATTER

matter; for the See also:

• MURDER

murder of the patriarch was but the See also:

• CULMINATION (from Lat. culmen, summit)

culmination of a whole See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of grievances accumulated since the Treaty of See also:

• BUCHAREST (Bucuresci)

Bucharest . Moreover, the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte was thrown into a suspicious See also:

• MOOD

mood by the contrast between the friendly See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of the western See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers and the active sympathy of the western peoples for the Greeks, who were supported by See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers and See also:

• MONEY

money See also:

• DRAWN

drawn from all Europe .

But, though the sultan remained stubborn, the emperor Alexander, who since the See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress of See also:

• LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana)

Laibach had been wholly under Metternich's See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence, resisted the clamour of his See also:

• PEOPLE

people for war, and dismissed his Greek See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister See also:

• CAPO

Capo d'See also:

• ISTRIA (Ger. Istrien)

Istria (q.v.) . The Congress of See also:

• VERONA
• VERONA, CONGRESS OF

Verona (1822) passed without any serious developments in the Eastern Question . The stubborn persistence of the Greeks, however, dashed Metternich's See also:

• HOPE, ANTHONY
• HOPE, THOMAS (c. 1770-1831)

hope that the question would soon See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle itself, and produced a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of affairs in the Levant which necessitated some See also:

• ACTION

action . In the instructions drawn up, shortly before his See also:

• DEATH

death, for his guidance at Verona, Castlereagh had stated the possibility of the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity for recognizing the Greeks as belligerents if the war continued . The See also:

• ATROPHY (Gr. It- priv., rpo4, nourishment)

atrophy of the Ottoman See also:

• HISTORY

HISTORY] See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea-See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power had See also:

• LEFT

left the See also:

• ARCHIPELAGO

archipelago at the See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy of the Greek war-brigs; piracy flourished; and it became essential in the interests of the See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce of all nations to make some power responsible for the policing of the narrow seas . On the 25th of March 1823 accordingly, Canning announced the recognition by See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain of the belligerent See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the Greeks . This roused the emperor Alexander to action, since it seemed as though Great Britain was aiming at ousting Russian influence in the Levant . He suggested a See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint intervention of the powers; but the See also:

• CONFERENCE

conference, which met at St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg in April 1824, came to nothing, since Turkey and the Greeks alike refused to be See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by its decisions, and Canning would not hear of See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion being applied to either . The See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole outcome of the conference was the offer in March 1825 of the joint See also:

• MEDIATION (Lat. medius, middle)

mediation of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria and Russia, which the Porte rejected . Meanwhile Mahmud, realizing the impossibility of crushing the Greek revolt unaided, had See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

bent his See also:

• PRIDE, THOMAS (d. 1658)

pride to ask the help of Mehemet See also:

• ALI

Ali, who was to receive as his See also:

• REWARD

reward See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

Crete, the Morea and the pashaliks of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria and See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . The See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• FLEET

fleet and disciplined See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army were now thrown into the See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale; and from the moment when See also:

• IBRAHIM

Ibrahim See also:

• PASHA

Pasha landed at Modon (Feb . 24, 1825),, the See also:

• FATE

fate of the Greeks seemed sealed .

The Morea was quickly overrun; in April 1826 See also:

• MISSOLONGHI, or MESOLONGHI (MaroMyyeov)

Missolonghi See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell, after a heroic See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence; in June 1827 See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens was once more in the hands of the Turks . Crowds of Greek captives were being sent as slaves to See also:

• CAIRO
• CAIRO (Arabic Misr-al-Kahira, or simply Misr)

Cairo; and, should the powers not intervene, there was every prospect of See also:

• GREECE

Greece being depopulated and colonized with Mussulman negroes and fellahin . At the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of 1825 an isolated intervention of Russia had seemed probable . A great army was assembled in the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south of Russia, and the emperor Alexander had gone to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place himself at its See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head when he died (Dec 22, 1825) . It was to prevent such an intervention that Canning seized the opportunity of the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of See also:

• NICHOLAS
• NICHOLAS (1841– )
• NICHOLAS (or NICLAES), HENRY (or HENDRIK) (c. 1501-C. 158o)
• NICHOLAS, SIR EDWARD (1593-1669)
• NICHOLAS, ST

Nicholas I. to send the See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• WELLINGTON
• WELLINGTON, ARTHUR WELLESLEY, 1ST DUKE OF (1769-1852)

Wellington to St Petersburg in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to See also:

• CONCERT (through the French from Lat. con-, with, and certare, to strive)

concert joint See also:

• MEASURES

measures . The result was the See also:

• PROTOCOL (Fr. protocole, Late Lat. protocollum, from Gr. vrp(;rros, first, and KoXXav, to glue, i.e. originally the first sheet of a papyrus roll)

protocol of St Petersburg of the 4th of April 1826, by which Great Britain was empowered to offer to the Ottoman See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government a See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of the Greek question based on the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of Greece as a See also:

• VASSAL (Fr. vassal, vassaut, vassault, &c,)

vassal and tributary state . Should the Porte refuse, the two powers were to take the earliest opportunity, either separately or in See also:

• COMMON

common, of establishing a reconciliation on the basis of the protocol . Russia, meanwhile, had seized the occasion to send to See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople an See also:

• ULTIMATUM (from Lat. ultimus, last)

ultimatum demanding See also:

• SATISFACTION (Lat. salisfacerc, to satisfy)

satisfaction for her own particular grievances; the Porte resented the intrusion of new See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention demands before the others had been dealt with, of and hurried on preparations for war . The reform See also:

• AKKERMAN (in old Slay. Byelgorod, "white town")

Akkerman. of the army, however, involved the destruction of the See also:

• JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni cheri, new troops)

Janissaries (q.v.), and though their See also:

• MASSACRE

massacre on the 15th of June left the sultan See also:

• FREE

free to carry out his views with regard to the army, it left him too weak to resist the Russian demands . On the 7th of See also:

• OCTOBER

October, accordingly, these were conceded by the Convention of Akkerman . Its terms were: the See also:

• CONFIRMATION (Lat. confirmatio, from confirmare, to establish, make firm)

confirmation of the Treaty of Bucharest and the opening of the See also:

• NAVIGATION (from Lat. navis, ship, and agere, to move)

navigation of the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

Black Sea to the Russian See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag; a stipulation that the hospodars of See also:

• WALACHIA, or WALLAHHIA

Walachia and See also:

• MOLDAVIA

Moldavia should be elected by the boyars for seven years, their See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election being confirmed by the Porte which, however, had no power to dismiss them without the concurrence of the Russian See also:

• AMBASSADOR (also EMBASSADOR, the form sometimes still used in America; from the Fr. ambassadeur, with which compare Ital. ambasciatore and Span. embajador, all variants of the Med. Lat. ambassiator, ambassiator, ambasator, &c., derived from Med. Lat. amba

ambassador at Constantinople; finally, See also:

• SERVIA

Servia's See also:

• AUTONOMY (Gr. abr6s, self, and v6pos, law)

autonomy was recognized, and, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save in the fortresses, no Mussulman might reside there . The Greek question was however, not yet settled .

Months passed without any action being taken under the protocol Agreement of the 4th of April; and Russia suspected Great of the Britain of merely using the protocol to prevent her powers as own isolated intervention . The situation was how-to Greece. ever materially altered by the end of See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August 1826; for the Greeks, driven to desperation, had formally invited the mediation of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England, thereby removing Canning's objection to an unasked intervention . He now invited the co-operation of Russia in representations to the Porte on457 the basis of the protocol, and, in the event of its refusal to come to terms, suggested certain measures of coercion . The See also:

• TSAR, or CZAR

tsar consented, and proposed that the coercion should take the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of a pacific See also:

• BLOCKADE
• BLOCKADE (Fr. blocus, Ger. Blokade)

blockade of the Morea, so as to force Ibrahim, by cutting off his supplies, to evacuate the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country . To this Great Britain agreed in principle; for Canning clearly saw the need for yielding on the question of a joint intervention, if the isolated intervention of Russia were to be prevented . In the conference of the five powers of the Grand Alliance opened at See also:

• LONDON

London in the See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early summer of 1827, however, a divergence of views at once became apparent . Austria and See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia See also:

• PRO

pro-tested against any coercion of the Porte " to serve revolutionary ends " and, failing to carry their views, withdrew from the conference . See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France thereupon proposed to convert the protocol of the 4th of April into a treaty; Russia and Great Britain agreed; and on the 6th of See also:

• JULY

July the Treaty of London was signed by the three powers . By the patent articles of the treaty the powers agreed to secure the autonomy of Greece under the See also:

• SUZERAINTY

suzerainty of the sultan, but without any breach of friendly relations with Turkey . By additional See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret articles it was agreed that, in the event of the Porte not accepting the offered mediation, consuls should be established in Greece, and an See also:

• ARMISTICE (from Lat. arma, arms, and sistere, to stop)

armistice proposed to both belligerents and enforced by all the means that should " suggest themselves to the prudence " of the high contracting powers . In general it was allowed that these means should be the " pacific blockade " proposed by the tsar . Instructions to this effect were sent to the admirals commanding in the Levant .

The armistice, accepted by the Greeks, was refused by Ibrahim, pending instructions from Constantinople, though he consented to keep his See also:

• SHIPS

ships in the See also:

• HARBOUR (from M.E. hereberge, here, an army; cf. Ger. Heer and -beorg, protection or shelter. Other early forms in English were herberwe and haiborow, as seen in various place names, such as Market Harborough.. The French auberge, an inn, derived through

harbour of Nava- See also:

• NAVARINO, BATTLE OF

Navarino. rino . The Greeks, having put themselves in the right with the powers, were free to continue the war; and the destruction of a See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish flotilla off Salona on the 23rd of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September followed . Ibrahim, taking this as a breach of the convention, set See also:

• SAIL

sail from Navarino northwards, but was turned back by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• EDWARD

Edward See also:

• CODRINGTON, CHRISTOPHER (1668-1710)
• CODRINGTON, SIR EDWARD (1770-1851)

Codrington, the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• ADMIRAL

admiral . Then, the Russian and See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French squadrons having joined, it was deter-See also:

• MINED

mined to put further pressure on the Egyptian See also:

• COMMANDER

commander, and the allied fleets, on the See also:

• MORNING

morning of the loth of October, stood into the See also:

• BAY

bay of Navarino . A chance scuffle led to a battle, and by the evening the Turkish and Egyptian fleets had ceased to exist (see NAVARINO, BATTLE OF) . The effect on the passionate sultan of this " unparalleled outrage on a friendly power in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of peace " is easy to imagine . In spite of the weak efforts of the British government to palliate the significance of this " untoward incident," Turkey broke off diplomatic relations with the three powers concerned, and on the loth of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December Mahmud, giving full vent to his rage, issued a hatt-i-sherif denouncing the See also:

• CRUELTY (through the O. Fr. crualte, mod. cruaute, from the Lat. crudelitas)

cruelty and perfidy of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian powers, declaring the convention of Akkerman null and void, and summoning the faithful to a See also:

• HOLY

holy war . The struggle that followed was, however, destined once more to be a See also:

• DUEL (Ital. duello, Lat. duellum—old form of bellum-from duo, two)

duel between Russia and Turkey . Great Britain, when Canning was no longer at the helm of state, had reverted to the traditional policy of preserving Ottoman integrity at all See also:

• COSTS

costs; the invitation of the tsar to accept the logical consequences of Navarino was refused; and Russia was left to settle her See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account with Turkey . The war that followed proved once more the wonderful resisting power of the Turks . In spite of the confusion due to the destruction of the Janissaries and army reforms as yet hardly begun, it cost the tzar two hardly fought See also:

• CAMPAIGNS

campaigns before the audacious See also:

• STRATEGY

strategy of General See also:

• DIEBITSCH, HANS KARL FRIEDRICH ANTON

Diebitsch enabled him to dictate the terms of the treaty of See also:

• ADRIANOPLE
• ADRIANOPLE (anc. Hadrianopolis; Turk. Edirne, or Edreneh; Slay. Odrin)

Adrianople (Sep . 14, 1829) .

Meanwhile the other powers had taken See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the reverses of the Russian arms to See also:

• DISCOUNT

discount the effect of their ultimate victory by attempting to settle the Greek question . In July 1828 France had been commissioned to oust Ibrahim from the Morea; and though by a convention, concluded on the 9th of War with Russia . August by Codrington with Mehemet All, the principle of evacuation by the Egyptian troops had already been settled before the arrival of the French expedition, the Morea remained for the time in French occupation . On the 16th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November a protocol of the London conference placed the Morea, with the neighbouring islands and the See also:

• CYCLADES

Cyclades, under the See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee of the powers; and on the 22nd of March 1829 another protocol extended the frontier thus guaranteed to the See also:

• LINE

line See also:

• ARTA (Narda, i.e. iv "Ap&a, or Zarta, i,e. eis "Apra)
• ARTA, GULF OF (anc. Sinus Ambracius)

Arta-See also:

• VOLO

Volo and included the See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island of See also:

• EUBOEA (pronounced Evvia in the modern language)

Euboea . According to this See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument Greece was to be erected into a tributary state, but autonomous, and governed by an hereditary prince chosen by the powers . The Treaty of Adrianople, by which the Danubian principalities were erected into practically See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent states, the treaty Ureek Inge- rights of Russia in the navigation of the See also:

• BOSPORUS, or BOSPHORUS (Gr. Boo-iopos=ox-ford, tradition-ally connected with Io, daughter of Inachus, who, in the form of a heifer, crossed the Thracian Bosporus on her wanderings)

Bosporus pendence. and See also:

• DARDANELLES (Turk. Bahr-Sefed Boghazi)
• DARDANELLES (Turk. Sultanieh Kalehsi, or Chanak Kalehsi)

Dardanelles confirmed, and the districts of See also:

• ANAPA

Anapa and See also:

• POTI

Poti in See also:

• ASIA

Asia ceded to the tsar, included also a settlement of the Greek question on the terms of the protocol of the 22nd of March . This fact, which threatened to give to Russia the whole See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige of the emancipation of Greece, spurred the other powers to further concessions . The See also:

• ACCEPTANCE (Lat. acceptare, frequentative form of accipere, to receive)

acceptance of the principle of See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence, once more warmly advocated by Metternich, seemed now essential if Greece was not to become, like the principalities, a See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere dependency of Russia . On the 3rd of See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1830 was signed a protocol embodying the principle of an independent Greece under See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold of See also:

• COBURG

Coburg as " See also:

• SOVEREIGN

sovereign prince." This was ultimately See also:

• EXPANDED

expanded, after the fall of the Wellington See also:

• MINISTRY

ministry, into the Treaty of London of the 7th of May 1832, by which Greece was made an independent See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom under the Bavarian prince See also:

• OTTO

Otto . (See GREECE: History.) Before the final settlement of the Greek question a fresh crisis had arisen in the affairs of Turkey . Her lessened prestige Syria. had already received a severe See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow from the boln- bardment and See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of See also:

• ALGIERS (Fr. Alger, Arab. Jezair, i.e. The Islands)

Algiers by the French in 1830, and her position was further embarrassed by revolts in Bosnia and See also:

• ALBANIA

Albania, when See also:

• NEWS

news reached Constantinople that Mehemet All had invaded Syria (Nov . 1, 1831), nominally in order to punish his enemy Abdullah, pasha of See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre, really in order to take by force of arms the pashaliks of Syria and Damascus promised as a reward for his services in Greece .

An account of the collapse of the Turkish power before Mehemet Ali, and of the complicated diplomatic developments that followed, is given in the See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article MEHEMET ALt . Here it must suffice to say that the recognition of Mehemet Ali's claims, forced on the sultan by France and Great Britain, was followed in 1833 by the See also:

• SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signature, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign)

signature cf the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, which seemed to place Turkey wholly in the power of Russia, after which Sultan Mahmud concentrated his energies on creating a force strong enough to crush his rebellious vassal . At last, in 1839, his eagerness would no longer be restrained, and without consulting his ministers, and in spite of the warnings of all the powers, he determined to renew the war . On the 21st of April the Ottoman army, which had been massed under See also:

• HAFIZ

Hafiz Pasha at Bir on the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates, crossed the stream, by the sultan's orders, and advanced on Damascus . On the 23rd of June it was attacked by Ibrahim at Nezib and annihilated . As for Mahmud, the news of the disaster reached Constantinople when he was unconscious and dying . Early on the 1st of July he was dead, and his son Abd-ul-Mejid, a lad of eighteen, reigned in his See also:

• STEAD, WILLIAM THOMAS (1849– )

stead (see MAHMUD II.) . The Eastern Question had now suddenly once more entered an acute phase . The news of Nezib was immediately followed And-ui- by that of the See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason of Ahmed Pasha, the Ottoman Mepd, admiral, who, on the plea that the sultan's coun-1839-1861. se]lors were sold to Russia, had sailed to See also:

• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIA (Arab. Iskenderia)

Alexandria and handed over the fleet to Mehemet Ali . With an inexperienced boy on the See also:

• THRONE

throne, divided and untrustworthy counsels in the See also:

• DIVAN (Arabic divan)

divan, and the defences of the empire shattered, the See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house of See also:

• OSMAN (1832-1900)
• OSMAN (`UsMAN)

Osman seemed doomed and the Turkish Empire about to dissolve into its elements . If Russia was to be prevented from using the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi for her own purposes, it was essential that the powers should concert measures to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the situation . The See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story of the diplomatic negotiations that followed is told elsewhere (see MEHEMET Au) .

Here it may suffice to say that the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of the emperor Nicholas to break the entente between Great Britain and France led him to waive his See also:

• SPECIAL

special claims under the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, and that in the ultimate concert by which the question was settled France, which throughout supported Mehemet Ali, had no See also:

• PART

part . The intervention of the powers, based on the convention of London of the 15th of July 184o, led to the withdrawal of Ibrahim from Syria, and the establishment by the See also:

• FIRMAN (an adaptation of the Per. ferman, a mandate or patent, cognate with the Sanskrit pramdna, a measure, authority)

firman of the 13th of February 1841 of Mehemet All as hereditary pasha of See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt under conditions intended to safeguard the sovereign rights of the Ottoman sultan . On the loth of July the four signatory powers of the convention of London signed a protocol recording the See also:

• CLOSURE (Fr. clooture)

closure of the incident (protocole de cloture), and on the 13th France See also:

• UNITED

united with them in See also:

• SIGNING

signing another protocol (protocole See also:

• DES

des detroits) by which the powers engaged to respect the principle proclaimed by the sultan as to the closing of the Dardanelles to See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign warships . The severe crisis through which the Ottoman Empire had passed accentuated the need for strengthening it by a drastic reform of its See also:

• SYSTEM

system . For such an experiment, Reform though hampered by continual insurrections within policy in and troubles without, Mahmud had done some- Turkey. thing to pave the way . The destruction of the Tanzimaf . Janissaries and the suppression of the quasi-independent power of the derebeys had removed the worst disturbing elements; the government had been centralized; a series of enactments had endeavoured to secure See also:

• ECONOMY

economy in the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration, to curb the abuses of See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official power, and ensure the impartiality of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice; and the sultan had even expressed his See also:

• PERSONAL

personal belief in the principle of the equality of all, Mussulman and non-Mussulman, before the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law . It was therefore no sudden revolution when, on the 15th of November 1839 Abd-ul-Mejid signalized his accession by promulgating the Tanzimat, or Hatti-Sherif of Gulhane, a See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree abolishing the arbitrary and unlimited power hitherto exercised by the state and its officials, laying down the See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the perfect equality of all Ottoman subjects of whatever See also:

• RACE

race or creed, and providing for the See also:

• REGULAR

regular, orderly and legal government of the country and the See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of See also:

• LIFE

life, See also:

• PROPERTY

property and See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour for all its inhabitants . Yet the feelings of dismay and even ridicule with which this See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation was received by the Mussulmans in many parts of the country show how great a See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change it instituted, and how strong was the opposition which it encountered among the ruling race . The non-Mussulman subjects of the sultan had indeed early been reduced to such a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude that the See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of their being placed on a footing of equality with their Mussulman rulers seemed unthinkable . Preserved merely as taxpayers necessary to See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply the funds for the See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance of the dominant and military class, according to a foreign observer in 1571, they had been so degraded and oppressed that they dared not look a Turk in the See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . Their only value was from a fiscal point of view, and in times of fanaticism or when See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-foreign sentiment ran high even this was held of little account, so that more than once they very nearly became the victims of a general and state-ordered massacre .

Thus Sultan Ibrahim was dissuaded from such a step in 1644 only by the refusal of the See also:

• SHEIKH, or SHAIKH

Sheikh-ul-See also:

• ISLAM

Islam to See also:

• SANCTION (Lat. sanctia, from sancire, to decree or ordain)

sanction the proceeding . The humane and tolerant measures provided for in the " See also:

• NIZAM

nizam-i-jedid," or new regulations for the better treatment of the Christians enacted by Mustafa See also:

• KUPRILI

Kuprili during his grand vizierate (1689-1691), did for a time improve the position of the rayas . But the See also:

• WARS

wars with Russia and other Christian powers, and the different risings of the Greeks and Servians, helped to stimulate the feelings of animosity and contempt entertained towards them by the ruling race; and the promulgation of the Tanzimat undoubtedly heralded for the subject nationalities the See also:

• DAWN (the 16th-century form of the earlier " Jawing " or " dawning," from an old verb " daw," O. Eng. dagian, to become day; cf. Dutch dagen, and Ger. tagen)

dawn of a new era . first sultan who entered into regular relations with foreign powers, and employed permanent ambassadors; the practice was discontinued at the time of the Greek revolution and the consequent rupture with the powers . Later, during the Egyptian negotiations, ambassadors were accredited to London, See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris and See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna . Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz's See also:

• JOURNEY (through O. Fr. jornee or journee, mod. Fr. journee, from med. Lat. diurnata, Lat. diurnus, of or belonging to dies, day)

journey to Europe and the return visits paid by foreign princes strengthened Turkey's relations with foreign states . The ministry of the Evkaf or pious See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations was established in 1827 and extended ten years later . Such foundations had been created from the earliest times, and the execution of the testator's wishes was generally left to his descendants, under the supervision of some high official designated in the See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act of endowment . In See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case of failure in the line of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession an See also:

• ADMINISTRATOR

administrator was appointed by the state . But many such foundations fell into disorder, and the ministry was created to exercise the requisite supervision . Though the provisions of the Tanzimat were not fully observed, they afforded convincing See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof that reform was entirely practicable in Turkey . Reforms were effected in every direction; the finances and the army were Results Reto: ms .

reorganized, military instructors being procured from Europe; the administration was gradually centralized, and See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good relations were cultivated with the powers, the only serious See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

international controversy arising in 1848—1849 over the refusal by Turkey, with the support of England, to surrender the Hungarian and See also:

• POLISH

Polish insurgents who had taken See also:

• REFUGE

refuge within her See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders . It cannot indeed be said that complete tranquillity prevailed throughout the country meanwhile; disturbances in the principalities and in the See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon gave serious trouble, while in 1842 the unsettled state of the Turco-See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian frontier nearly led to war . By the mediation of England and Russia the Treaty of See also:

• ERZERUM, or ARZRUM (Arm. Garin)

Erzerum was signed (1847) and a frontier See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission was appointed . But as the frontier was not definitely demarcated the See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door was left open for controversies which have occurred frequently up to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . Turkey's progress in the path of reform was viewed with some uneasiness in Russia, the See also:

• CARDINAL (Lat. cardinalis)

cardinal principle of whose policy since 1829 had been to maintain her own Russian influence at Constantinople by keeping the Otto- Policy since See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man government weak . In favour of this view 1829. the traditional policy of See also:

• PETER
• PETER (Lat. Petrus from Gr. irfpos, a rock, Ital. Pietro, Piero, Pier, Fr. Pierre, Span. Pedro, Ger. Peter, Russ. Petr)
• PETER (PEDRO)
• PETER, EPISTLES OF
• PETER, ST

Peter the Great and See also:

• CATHERINE
• CATHERINE, SAINT

Catherine II. had been deliberately given up, and by the secret convention signed at Munchengratz on the 18th of September 1833 the emperor Nicholas had agreed with his See also:

• BROTHER

brother sovereigns of the revived " Holy Alliance" to maintain the integrity of Turkey, where Russian influence seemed to have been rendered supreme and permanent by the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi . The crisis which ended in 1841, however, materially altered the situation from the Russian point of view . By his concert with the other powers in the affair of Mehemet Ali, the tsar had abdicated his claim to a unique influence at Constantinople, and he began to revive the idea of ending the Ottoman See also:

• RULE

rule in Europe, an idea which he had only unwillingly abandoned in 1829 in response to the unanimous opinion of his advisers . In 1844 he took advantage of his visit to England to propose to British ministers a See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan of See also:

• PARTITION

partition, under which Great Britain was to receive Egypt and Crete, Constantinople was to be erected into a free See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, and the See also:

• BALKAN

Balkan states were to become autonomous under Russian See also:

• PROTECTION

protection . This proposal, as might have been expected, only served to rouse suspicions as to Russia's plans; it was politely rejected, and the whole Eastern Question slumbered, until, early in 1850, it was awakened by an incident trivial enough in itself, but pregnant with future trouble: a See also:

• QUARREL

quarrel of See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic and Orthodox monks about the holy places in See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine . By the See also:

• CAPITULATIONS (from Lat. ca put, or its Low-Latin diminutive capitulum, as indicating the form in which these acts were set down in chapters "; the Gr. equivalent cephaleosis, KediaXalwocc, is occasionally used in works of the 17th century)

Capitulations signed on the 28th of May 1740 on behalf of Sultan Mahmud I. and See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XV . " emperor of France, " not only French pilgrims to See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, but all members of " Christian and hostile nations " visiting Then the Ottoman Empire, had been placed under the protection of the French flag, and by a special article the See also:

• FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791)

Frank, i.e .

See also:

• ROMAN

Roman Catholic, ecclesiastics had been guaranteed certain rights in the holy places . These stipulations of the treaty, which were in effect a confirmation of the firman granted in the announcement of a new sultan's accession . See also:

• SELIM

Selim III. was the 1620 by See also:

• MURAD, or AMURATH

Murad IV. to Louis XIII., had fallen into oblivion The reforms introduced by Sultan Mahmud and by the Tanzimat necessitated the remodelling of nearly all the departments Remodelling of state . Towards the end of Mahmud II.'s reign of the ministries had been instituted, and a See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council of Adm;n;stra- ministers had been established, presided over by tton. the grand See also:

• VIZIER

vizier . In 1837 the " council of the See also:

• SUBLIME (Lat. sublimis, exalted)

Sublime Porte " and the " supreme council of legal affairs " were established: the latter was the tribunal to which were referred all complaints against officials or claims pending between the state and private individuals; the council of the Sublime Porte was in 1839 transferred to the ministry of commerce; the supreme council of legal affairs after under-going various modifications was in 1868 absorbed in the council of state . In 1837 a " council of public See also:

• WORKS

works " was instituted, converted ten years later into a See also:

• SEPARATE

separate ministry . In 1835 the " ministry of administration " was formed; two years later its See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title was changed to ministry of the interior . Regulations prescribing the duties of the See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors and officials of all ranks were drawn up only in 1865 and 1870, but since Mahmud's time their functions were exclusively See also:

• CIVIL

civil and administrative . A regular hierarchical order was elaborated for the official classes, both civil and military, whereby the See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank of each See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person was clearly defined . The military reorganization See also:

• DATES