INDEPENDENT  See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

MEXICO] (Dec . 1853), the other by See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

Count Raousset de Boulbon in Sonora (See also:

• JULY

July 1854)—added to the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general disorder . The provisional See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

president, General See also:

• CARRERA, JOSE MIGUEL (1785-1821)

Carrera, proving too Centralist, was replaced by See also:

• ALVAREZ, DON JOSE (1768-1827)
• ALVAREZ, DON MANUEL (1727-1797)
• ALVAREZ, FRANCISCO (c. 1465-1541?)

Alvarez (See also:

• SEPT

Sept . 24, 1855), two of whose ministers are conspicuous in later See also:

• HISTORY

history—Ignacio See also:

• COMONFORT, IGNACIO (1812–1.863)

Comonfort, See also:

• MINISTER (Lat. minister, servant)

minister of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, and Benito See also:

• JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-1872)

Juarez, minister of See also:

• FINANCE

finance . Juarez (b . 1806) was of unmixed See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• BLOOD

blood . The son of a Zapotec See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant in a See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• VILLAGE

village of See also:

• OAXACA, OAJACA (from Aztec Huaxyacac), or OAXACA DE JUAREZ (official title)
• OAXACA, or OAJACA (officially OAXACA DE JUAREZ)

Oaxaca, he was employed as a lad by a bookbinder in Oaxaca See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city, and aided by him to study for the priesthood . He soon turned to the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law, though for a See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time he was teacher of physics in a small See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college; eventually went into politics, and did excellent See also:

• WORK

work in 1847 as See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of his native See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state . Juarez almost immediately secured the enactment of a law (Ley Juarez, Nov . 23, 1855) subjecting the See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy and the See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army to the See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction of the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary courts . " Benefit of clergy " was the curse of Mexico . See also:

• OFFICERS

Officers and soldiers could be tried only by courts-See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial, the clergy (including See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of persons in See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor orders, who were practically-laymen) only by ecclesiastical courts .

The proposed reform roused the Clericals to resistance . Alvarez gave See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place (Dec . 8, 1855) to his war minister Comonfort, who represented the less See also:

• ANTI, or CAMPA

anti-Clerical Liberals . He appointed a See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission to consider the question of draining the valley of Mexico, which adopted the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan ultimately carried out in 1890–1900; suppressed a Clerical rising in See also:

• PUEBLA
• PUEBLA (full title La Puebla de los Angeles, and more recently, Puebla de Zaragoza)

Puebla (See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 1856), which was punished by a considerable See also:

• CONFISCATION (from Lat. confiscare, to consign to the fiscus, or imperial treasury)

confiscation of See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church See also:

• PROPERTY

property; sanctioned a law releasing church See also:

• LAND

land from See also:

• MORTMAIN (0. Fr. mortemain; med. Lat. mortua manus, dead hand)

mortmain, by providing for its See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale, for the benefit, however, of the ecclesiastical owners (called after its author See also:

• MIGUEL, MARIA EVARIST (1802–1866)

Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, See also:

• BROTHER

brother of the subsequent president), and a new draft constitution, largely modelled on that of the See also:

• UNITED

United States (Feb . 5, 1857) . The clergy protested violently, and the Plan of Tacubaya (Dec . 17, 1857), which made Comonfort See also:

• DICTATOR (from the Lat. dictare, frequentative of dicere, to speak)

dictator, provided for the construction of a new constitution under his auspices . He was presently displaced by a thorough reactionary, General See also:

• ZULOAGA, IGNACIO (1870— )

Zuloaga, and expelled from Mexico See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early in 1858; and for three years Mexico was a See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to See also:

• CIVIL

civil war between two See also:

• RIVAL

rival governments —the Republicans at See also:

• VERA, AUGUSTO (1813-1885)

Vera Cruz under Juarez, who, as See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Chief See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

Justice of the Supreme See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

Court, succeeded Comonfort; and the reactionaries at the See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital . The latter were at first presided over by Zuloaga, who, proving incompetent, was replaced at the end of 1858 by Pezuela, who early in 1859 gave place to Miguel See also:

• MIRAMON, MIGUEL (1832-1867)

Miramon, a See also:

• YOUNG
• YOUNG, A
• YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820)
• YOUNG, BRIGHAM (1801-1877)
• YOUNG, CHARLES MAYNE (1777–1856)
• YOUNG, EDWARD (1683–1765)
• YOUNG, JAMES (1811-1883)
• YOUNG, THOMAS (1773-1829)

young, able and unscrupulous soldier who was shortly afterwards accepted as " constitutional " president by his party . The Juarists were defeated outside the city of Mexico twice, in See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1858 and on the 11th of See also:

• APRIL

April 1859, On the second occasion the whole See also:

• BODY

body of officers, who had surrendered, were shot with Miramon's authority, if not by his See also:

• EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat. exprimere, to press out, by transference used of representing objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words)

express orders, together with several surgeons (including one Englishman, Dr See also:

• DUVAL, ALEXANDRE VINCENT
• DUVAL, CLAUDE (1643–1670)

Duval) (the fifty-three " martyrs of Tacubaya ") . This atrocity caused See also:

• GREAT

great indignation in Mexico and abroad: the reactionists were divided; their See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial straits were extreme, as the Juarists held all the chief ports . Juarez was recognized by the United States, and allowed to draw supplies of arms and See also:

• VOLUNTEERS

volunteers thence; and in July 1859 he published See also:

• LAWS

laws suppressing the religious orders, nationalizing ecclesiastical property (of the estimated value of $45,000,000), establishing civil See also:

• MARRIAGE

marriage and See also:

• REGISTRATION

registration, transferring the cemeteries to civil See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, and, in See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, disestablishing the church .

But the apparent hopelessness of any ending to the conflict, together with the frequent outrages of both parties on foreigners, afforded strong reasons for See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign intervention . Early in 1859 President See also:

• BUCHANAN
• BUCHANAN, CLAUDIUS
• BUCHANAN, GEORGE (1506–1582)
• BUCHANAN, JAMES (1791-1868)
• BUCHANAN, ROBERT WILLIAMS (1841-1901)

Buchanan had recommended the step to See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress, which did not See also:

• RESPOND

respond . On the 12th of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1859 the M`Lean-Juarez treaty was concluded, which gave the United States a sort of disguised See also:

• PROTECTORATE

protectorate over Mexico, with certain rights of way for railroads over the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

Isthmus of See also:

• TEHUANTEPEC
• TEHUANTEPEC (from tecuani-tepec—" jaguar-hill ")

Tehuantepec and between the Rio Grande and Pacific . The See also:

• AMERICAN

American See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate, however, did not ratify the treaty, and a See also:

• MOTION (Lat. motio, from movere, to move)
• MOTION, LAWS OF

motion for its reconsideration See also:

• LATE

late in 186o came to nothing, owing to the approach of the War of See also:

• SECESSION

Secession . When See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon III. was in captivity at See also:

• HAM

Ham he dreamed of341 a Central See also:

• AMERICA

America civilized and opened up to See also:

• MODERN

modern enterprise by a transoceanic See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal: and the clerical refugees in See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, among them Labastida, See also:

• ARCHBISHOP (Lat. archiepiscopus, from Gr. apxceatorcoros)

archbishop of Mexico, easily influenced the Empress See also:

• EUGENIE

Eugenie, herself a Spaniard, to See also:

• INTEREST

interest her See also:

• HUSBAND

husband in the cause of centralized See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy and the church: it is said that even in 1859 they had thoughts of setting up the See also:

• ARCHDUKE (Lat. archidux, Ger. Erzherzog)

Archduke See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian as ruler of Mexico . The question of a See also:

• JOINT (through Fr. from Lat. junctum, jungere, to join)

joint intervention of Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain, See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France, See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain and See also:

• PRUSSIA
• PRUSSIA (Ger. Preussen; Lat. Borussia)

Prussia was mooted between those See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers in i86o . Early in 1859 the outrages on See also:

• BRITISH

British subjects had Overthrow caused the British minister to break off See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic of Miramon, relations . Forced contributions had been levied by 1860. both sides on goods or See also:

• BULLION

bullion, being See also:

• EUROPEAN

European property, the reactionaries being the worst offenders; and there were numerous cases of See also:

• MURDER

murder and See also:

• ROBBERY (from O. Fr. rober, to steal)

robbery of Europeans . At last, on the 17th of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November 186o, Miramon, under the plea of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity, seized $630,000 in specie which had been See also:

• LEFT

left under See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal at the British See also:

• LEGATION (Lat. legalio, a sending or mission)

Legation and was intended for the bondholders . On the 22nd of December 1860 his forces were routed by the Juarist general Ortega at Arroyozarco, and his See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government was over-thrown . Juarez entered Mexico City on the nth of See also:

• JANUARY

January 1861 . He soon found that his government was held responsible to See also:

• EUROPE

Europe for the excesses of its rival as well as its own .

Miramon's government had violated the British Legation; the See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish minister, the papal See also:

• LEGATE (Lat. legatus, past part. of legare, to send as deputy)
• LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612)

legate and the representatives of See also:

• GUATEMALA (sometimes incorrectly written GUATIMALA)
• GUATEMALA, or GUATEMALA LA NUEVA (i.e. " New Guatemala," sometimes written Nueva Guatemala, and formerly Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala)

Guatemala and See also:

• ECUADOR (officially La Republica del Ecuador)

Ecuador were expelled from the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country for undue interference on behalf of the reactionaries; the payments of the European British See also:

• LOAN (adapted from the Scandinavian form of a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Swed. Mn, Icel. lan, Dut. leen; the O.E. laen appears in " lend," the ultimate source is seen in the root of Gr. Xeiaecv and Lat. linquere, to leave)

loan were suspended by Juarez's Congress in Interven-July 1861; and various outrages had been committed flop, 1864 on the persons and property of Europeans for which no redress could be obtained . The See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge d'affaires, See also:

• DUBOIS
• DUBOIS, FRANCOIS CLEMENT THEODORE (1837– )
• DUBOIS, GUILLAUME (1656–1723)
• DUBOIS, JEAN ANTOINE (1765-1848)
• DUBOIS, PAUL (1829-1905)
• DUBOIS, PIERRE (c. 1250-c. 1312)

Dubois de Saligny, who had been sent out in November 186o, urged French intervention, and took up the Jecker claims . Jecker, a Swiss banker settled in Mexico, had See also:

• LENT (0. Eng. lenclen, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," 0. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days ")

lent Miramon's government in 1859 $750,000 (subject, however, to various deductions): in return, Miramon gave him 6 % bonds of the nominal value of $15,000,000 which were ingeniously disguised as a See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme . Jecker had failed early in 186o, Miramon was overthrown a few months later . Jecker's creditors were mostly French, but he still held most of the bonds, and there is See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason to believe that he won over Dubois de Saligny by corrupt means to support his claims . Intercepted See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence (since confirmed from the archives of the Tuileries) showed that the Duc de See also:

• MORNY, CHARLES AUGUSTE LOUIS JOSEPH

Morny promised Jecker his patronage in return for 30% of the; profits (De la Gorce, Hist. du Second See also:

• EMPIRE

Empire, IV. c . 1) . An imperial See also:

• DECREE (from the past participle, decretus, of Lat. decernere)

decree naturalized Jecker in France, and Napoleon III. took up his claim . A See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention between Great Britain, France and Spain for joint interference in Mexico was signed in See also:

• LONDON

London on the 31st of October 1861 . A See also:

• SEPARATE

separate arrangement of the British claims was negotiated by Juarez, but rejected by the Mexican Congress, November 1861; and the assistance of the United States with a small loan was declined, Mexican territory being demanded as See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security . On the 14th of December Vera Cruz was occupied by Spanish troops under General See also:

• PRIM, JUAN, MARQUIS DE LOS CASTILLEJOS, COUNT DE REDS (1814-187o)

Prim; the French See also:

• FLEET

fleet and troops arrived soon after, with instructions to seize and hold the Gulf ports and collect the customs for the three Powers till a See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement was effected; Great Britain sent See also:

• SHIPS

ships, and landed only 700 See also:

• MARINES (from Lat. mare, sea)

marines . In view of the unhealthiness of Vera Cruz, the convention of Soledad was concluded with the Mexican government, permitting the foreign troops to advance to See also:

• ORIZABA (Aztec, Citlaltepetl, " star mountain ")
• ORIZABA (Indian name Ahuaializ-apan, pleasant waters)

Orizaba and incidentally recognizing Mexican See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence .

But as the French harboured leaders of the Mexican reactionaries, pressed the Jecker claims and showed a disposition to interfere in Mexican domestic politics, which See also:

• LAY

lay beyond the terms of the joint convention, Great Britain and Spain withdrew their forces in March 1862 . More troops were sent from France . Their advance was checked by Zaragoza and Porfirio See also:

• DIAZ, NARCISSE VIRGILIO (18(38-1876)
• DIAZ, PORFIRIO (183o– )

Diaz in the See also:

• BATTLE

battle of Cinco de See also:

• MAYO
• MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, 6TH EARL OF (1822-1872)

Mayo, on the 5th of May 1862; and in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September of that. See also:

• YEAR

year 30,000 more French troops arrived under General See also:

• FOREY, ELIE FREDERIC (1804-1872)

Forey . Wintering at Orizaba, they recommenced their advance Benito Juarez . Miramon . (Feb . 17, 1863), besieged and reduced Puebla, and entered Mexico City on the 7th of See also:

• JUNE

June . A provisional government of Mexicans, French nominated directly or indirectly by Dubois de Expedition, Saligny, adopted monarchy, offered the See also:

• CROWN

crown to 1862-63 . Maximilian of See also:

• AUSTRIA
• AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unter der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns ")
• AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der Enns, " Austria above the river Enns ")

Austria, brother of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

Emperor See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis See also:

• JOSEPH
• JOSEPH, COMTE DE (1785-1870)
• JOSEPH, FATHER (FRANCOIS LECLERC DU TREMBLAY) (1577-1638)

Joseph, and should he refuse, left its disposal to Napoleon III . Maximilian, after some difficulty as to renouncing his right of See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession to the See also:

• THRONE

throne of Austria, accepted the crown Maximilian subject to the approval of the Mexican See also:

• PEOPLE

people, and Emperor, reached Mexico city on the 1 zth of June 1864 . Juarez 1864. meanwhile had set up his capital, first in See also:

• SAN

San Luis See also:

• POTOSI

Potosi, then in See also:

• CHIHUAHUA

Chihuahua . The new empire was unstable from the first .

Before Maximilian arrived the provisional government had refused to See also:

• CANCEL (from the Lat. cancelli, a plural diminutive of cancer, a grating or lattice, from which are also derived " chancel " and " chancellor ")

cancel the sales of confiscated Church lands, as the clericals demanded . When he came, a See also:

• HOST

host of new difficulties arose . A new loan, nominally of about eight millions See also:

• STERLING
• STERLING, ANTOINETTE (d. 1904)
• STERLING, JOHN (1806-1844)

sterling, but yielding little more than four, owing to See also:

• DISCOUNT

discount and commission, was raised in Europe, but no funds were really available for its service . Maximilian carried the elaborate See also:

• ETIQUETTE

etiquette of the court of See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna to Mexico, but favouring See also:

• TOLERATION (from Lat. tolerare, to endure)

toleration of Protestantism, and the supremacy of the Crown over the Church, he was too liberal for the clericals who had set him up . As a foreigner he was unpopular, and the regiments of Austrians and Belgians which were to serve as the See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of his own army were more so . His reforms, excellent on See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, could not be carried out, for the trained bureaucracy necessary did not exist . For a time he nominally held sway over about two-thirds of the country—roughly, from See also:

• LAT

lat . 18° to 23°, thus excluding the extreme See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south . Oaxaca city, under Porfirio Diaz,' capitulated to See also:

• BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS (1811–1888)

Bazaine—who had superseded the too See also:

• PRO

pro-clerical Forey in October 1864—in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February 1865, and by the autumn of that year the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the Juarists in the north seemed desperate . But the towns asked for permanent French garrisons, which were refused, as weakening their own See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of self-defense . Instead, the country was traversed by flying columns, and the guerillas dealt with by a French service of " contre-guerilla," who fought with much the same savagery as their foes . Directly the French troops had passed, Republican bands sprang up, and the non-combatant Mexicans, to See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save themselves, could only profess See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality .

Yet on the 3rd of October 1865, Maximilian, misled by a false See also:

• REPORT (O.Fr. report or raport, modern rapport, from O.Fr. reporter, mod. rap porter, Lat. reportare, to bring back, in poetical use only, of bringing back an account, news, &c.)

report that Juarez had left the country, issued a decree declaring the Juarists guerillas, who, whenever captured, were to be tried by court-martial and shot . Mexican generals on both sides had done as much . But Maximilian's decree prepared his own See also:

• FATE

fate . The American Civil War ended in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of 1865, and a strong popular feeling was at once manifested in favour of asserting the See also:

• MONROE
• MONROE, JAMES (1758-1831)

Monroe See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine against Maximilian's government . In the summer there were threatening movements of United Maximilian States troops towards the Rio Grande; early in 1866 deserted by Napoleon III. announced his intention of withdrawing France. his forces; in response to a See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note of See also:

• SEWARD, ANNA (1747-1809)
• SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY (180r-1872)

Seward, the United States secretary of state, of the 12th of February 1866, he was induced to promise their return by three instalments—in November 1866, March and November 1867 . Maximilian now turned for support to the Mexican clericals; meditated See also:

• ABDICATION (Lat. abdicatio, disowning, renouncing, from ab, from, and dicare, to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one)

abdication, but was dissuaded by his wife See also:

• CHARLOTTE

Charlotte, the daughter of See also:

• LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people ")

Leopold I. of See also:

• BELGIUM
• BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgic)

Belgium (and " the better See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of the two," as he had once jestingly said), who went to intercede for him with the emperor of the French . Finding him obdurate, she went on to See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope; while at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome she went mad (end of September 1866) . Maximilian had meanwhile See also:

• DRAWN

drawn nearer to the clericals and farther from the French, and, to protect French interests, Napoleon III. had decided to send out General See also:

• CASTELNAU, MICHEL DE, SIEUR DE LA MAUVTSSIERE (c. 1520-1592)

Castelnau to supersede Bazaine, arrange for the withdrawal of the French forces in one body, and restore the See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

Republic under Ortega, who had quarrelled with Juarez, and was therefore, of all republicans, least unacceptable to the clericals . But fearing the prospect, they induced Maximilian, who had retired to Orizaba for his ' Diaz refused See also:

• PAROLE (shortened from the Fr. parole d'honneur, word of honour)

parole, and was confined at Puebla for some months, but made his See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape, and was soon in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field again . See also:

• HEALTH

health, to remain . He yielded on condition that a congress of all parties should be summoned to decide the fate of the empire . Hereupon he returned to the capital; the Juarist dominion extended 'rapidly; the French troops left (in one body) on the 5th of February 1867, and shortly after Maximilian took command of the army at See also:

• QUERETARO

Queretaro .

Here, with Miramon, he was besieged by the Juarists under Escobedo, and the See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison, when about to make a last See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to break out, was betrayed 2 by See also:

• COLONEL (derived either from Lat. column, Fr. colonne, column, or Lat. corona, a crown)

Colonel See also:

• LOPEZ, CARLOS ANTONIO (1790-1862)

Lopez to the besiegers (May 15, 1867) . See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

Execution of Maximilian, with the Mexican generals Miramon and Maximilian, Mejia, was tried by court-martial, and, refusing (or 1867 . neglecting) to avail himself of various opportunities of escape, was convicted on charges which may be summarized as See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion, murder and See also:

• BRIGANDAGE

brigandage, on the 14th of June, and shot, with Miramon and Mejia, on the 19th of June 1867, despite many protests from European governments and prominent individuals, including See also:

• GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882)

Garibaldi and See also:

• VICTOR
• VICTOR, GAIUS JULIUS (4th cent. A.D.)
• VICTOR, SEXTUS AURELIUS

Victor See also:

• HUGO, GUSTAV VON (1764–1844)
• HUGO, VICTOR MARIE (1802-1885)

Hugo . (An effort to save him made by the U.S . Government was frustrated by the dilatoriness of the U.S . Minister accredited to Juarez's Government.) After considerable difficulty with the Republican Government, his body was brought to Europe . Meanwhile Porfirio Diaz had captured Puebla (April 2) and besieged Mexico City, which See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell on the 21st of June . The last anti-Juarist stronghold (Inayarit) submitted on the zoth of July 1867 . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal of discontent existed Juarez President . among the republican See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank and See also:

• FILE

file, and Juarez's See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election in October to the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency was opposed by Diaz's See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, but without success . But so soon as Juarez was elected, insurrections See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke out, and brigandage prevailed throughout the following year . There were unsuccessful insurrections also in 1869 (clerical) and 187o (republican), but an See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

amnesty, passed on the 13th of October 187o, helped to restore See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace; trouble again arose, however, at the 1871 election, at which the candidates were Juarez, See also:

• SEBASTIAN
• SEBASTIAN, ST

Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada and Diaz .

Juarez's continued re-election was regarded as unconstitutional, and no party obtaining a clear See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority, the See also:

• MATTER

matter was thrown into Congress, which elected him . Diaz's supporters refused to recognize him, and a revolution broke out, which went on sporadically till Juarez's See also:

• DEATH

death on the 18th of July Death of 1872 . Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, as president of Juarez, the Supreme Court, succeeded him, and amnestied 1872 . the rebels, but made no further concessions . In the next year, however, laws were passed repeating in a stronger See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the attacks of 18J7 on the supremacy of the Church, and prohibiting monastic See also:

• LIFE

life . The first See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day of 1873 was marked by the opening of the Vera Cruz & Mexico railway . See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant Adminismissions established themselves (with some opposi- tration of tion) in the country, and diplomatic relations were Lerdo de renewed with France and Spain (1874) . But towards 7'e)ada . the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of Lerdo de Tejada's See also:

• TERM

term he was suspected of aiming at a dictatorship, and Diaz, whom he had proscribed, made preparations for a rising, then retiring to See also:

• TEXAS

Texas . At the beginning of 1876 the revolution broke out in Oaxaca with the plan of Tuxtepec, which was adopted by Diaz, and proclaimed as the plan of Palo Blanco (March 21) . Diaz's attempt to raise the north, however, failed, and, trying to reach Vera Cruz by See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, he was recognized on the steamer, and recaptured while attempting a four-mile swim ashore . The See also:

• PURSER

purser, however, made it appear that he had again jumped overboard, concealed him for some days—generally inside one of the See also:

• SALOON

saloon sofas—and helped him to get ashore in disguise at Vera Cruz .

He then escaped to Oaxaca and raised a force . Lerdo was declared re-elected, but was overthrown by Diaz after the battle of Tecoac (Nov . 16, 1876) and forced into See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile (See also:

• JAN

Jan . 1877), and Diaz was declared ,president on the 2nd of May porflrio 1877 . A law forbidding the re-election of a presi- dent till four years had elapsed from his retirement President, from See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office was passed in the autumn of that year . 1877 . 2 Lopez said he acted as Maximilian's See also:

• AGENT (from Lat. agere, to act)

agent, but his See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story rested on an alleged See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter from Maximilian which was discredited as a See also:

• FORGERY (derived through the French from Latin fabricare, to construct)

forgery . The See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of his See also:

• TREASON (Fr. trahison, Lat. traditio)

treason was published in El See also:

• NATIONAL

National of Mexico, Sept. u, 1887 . Diaz's first presidency (1870–1880) was marked by some unsuccessful attempts at revolution notably by Escobedo from Texas in 1878, and by a more serious See also:

• CONSPIRACY (from Lat. conspirare, literally to breathe together, to agree, combine, and especially to form a secret plot)

conspiracy in 1879 . Diplomatic relations were resumed with Spain, See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany, See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy and some South American states (1877), and France (188o) . There were some frontier difficulties with the United States, and with Guatemala, which revived a claim dropped since 1858 to a portion of the state of See also:

• CHIAPAS

Chiapas; and there was considerable See also:

• INTERNAL

internal progress, aided by a too liberal policy of subsidies to See also:

• RAILWAYS

railways and even to lines of steamships . The boundary questions were settled under President Gonzalez (1880-1884); relations with Great Britain were renewed in 1884 .

The claims of the railways, however, necessitated See also:

• RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchemen.t, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short)

retrenchment on See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official salaries, and the president's plan for conversion of the See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt roused unexpected and successful opposition in an ordinarily subservient Congress . At the end of 1884 Porfirio Diaz was again elected president, and was continually re-elected, the constitution being modified expressly to allow him to continue in office . The history of Mexico from 1884 to 1910 was almost void of See also:

• POLITICAL

political strife . President Diaz's policy was to keep down disorder with a strong See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand; to enforce the law; to Mexico See also:

• FOSTER, GEORGE EULAS (1847– )
• FOSTER, JOHN (177o-1843)
• FOSTER, MYLES BIRKET (1825-1899)
• FOSTER, SIR CLEMENT LE NEVE (1841-1904)
• FOSTER, SIR MICHAEL (1836-r9o7)
• FOSTER, STEPHEN COLLINS (1826-1864)

foster railway development and economic progress; under Diaz. to develop native manufactures by protective tariffs; to introduce new See also:

• INDUSTRIES

industries, e.g. the See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production of See also:

• SILK

silk and See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine, of See also:

• COCA, or CUCA (Erythroxylon coca)

coca and See also:

• QUININE

quinine; to promote forestry; to improve elementary and higher See also:

• EDUCATION

education—for all which purposes the Ministerio del Fomento is a potent See also:

• ENGINE
• ENGINE (Lat. ingenium)

engine; to encourage colonization; and, above all, to place the national See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit on a See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

sound basis . The first step in this See also:

• PROCESS

process was a settlement of the Financial British debt by See also:

• DIRECT

direct arrangement with the bondreorganiza- holders . In 1890 the Spanish bondholders' claims tion. were satisfactorily arranged also . In 1891 the See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff was made more protectionist . In 1893 the depreciation of See also:

• SILVER

silver necessitated stringent retrenchment; but the See also:

• BUDGET (originally from a Gallic word meaning sack, latinized as bulga, leather wallet or bag, thence in O. Fr. bougette, from which the Eng. form is derived)

budget balanced for the first time during many years, the floating debt was converted, and a loan raised for the completion of the Tehuantepec Railway . After 1896 substantial See also:

• ANNUAL

annual surpluses were spent in reducing See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation and in the extinction of debt . In 1895 the 6% See also:

• EXTERNAL

external debt was converted into a 5% debt, the bonds of which remained at a See also:

• PREMIUM (Lat. praemium, profit, reward, prae+emere, to buy)

premium for 1902; in 1896 the alcabalas or interstate customs and municipal octrois were abolished, and replaced in See also:

• PART

part by direct taxation and increased See also:

• STAMP (from " to stamp," to strike or tread heavily, hence to impress, O. Eng. stempen, Du. stampen, Ger. stampfen, whence, O. Fr. estamper, mod. etamper)

stamp duties . The institution by Diaz of the guardias rurales, a mounted See also:

• GENDARMERIE

gendarmerie composed of the class who in former days drifted Pacification into revolution and brigandage, was a potent means of the of maintaining See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, and the See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension of railways country. and telegraphs enabled the government to See also:

• COPE
• COPE (M.E. cape, cope, from Med. Lat. capa, cappa)
• COPE, EDWARD DRINKER (1840-1897)
• COPE, EDWARD MEREDITH (1818-1873)

cope at once with any disturbance . The old local revolutions practically disappeared .

In 1886–1887 there were some disturbances in See also:

• COAHUILA

Coahuila, New See also:

• LEON
• LEON, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591)
• LEON, MOSES BEN SI
• LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS

Leon, See also:

• SINALOA

Sinaloa and See also:

• TAMAULIPAS

Tamaulipas; subsequently hardly anything was heard of such disorders except on the Texan frontier, where in 1890 Francisco See also:

• RUIZ, JUAN (c. 1283-c. 1350)

Ruiz Sandoval and in 1891 Catarino Garza made incursions into Mexico . Occasionally the Church gave trouble—the presence of foreign priests was complained of; attempts to evade the law prohibiting conventual life were detected and foiled (1891, 1894); and there were Indian risings, repressed sometimes with great severity, among the Mayas of See also:

• YUCATAN

Yucatan, whose last stronghold was taken in 1891, and the Yaquis of Sonora (1899–1900) . Under federal and democratic forms, Diaz exercised a strictly centralized and See also:

• PERSONAL

personal See also:

• RULE

rule . He was invited to approve the candidates proposed for state governorships; in all law cases affecting the Government or political matters the See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges asked his See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion; he drafted bills, and discussed their See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text with individual members and committees of congress . Similarly, the state legislatures, as well as the judges and municipal officers, were actually or virtually selected by the state See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors, who were practically agents of the president . Now and then the old passions broke out: in September 1898 an absurd attempt to assassinate President Diaz was made by a countryman named See also:

• ARROYO (O. Sp. arrogio, Lat. arrogium, a rivulet or stream)

Arroyo, but discontent with Diaz's rule was apparently confinedto a small minority.' In 1909 indeed there were some disquieting symptoms . Owing to Diaz's See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age the See also:

• VICE

vice-presidency had been revived in 1904, and See also:

• DON
• DON (anc. Tanais)

Don Ramon See also:

• CORRAL (Span. from corro, a circle)

Corral elected to it; but at the elections of 1909 a See also:

• MOVEMENT

movement arose in favour of replacing him by General Bernardo Reyes, Governor of Nuevo Leon, but he was disposed of by an official commission to study the military systems of Europe . It was, therefore, regarded as certain that, should President Diaz See also:

• DIE
• DIE (Fr. de, from Lat. datum, given)

die in office, Senor Corral would succeed him without serious difficulty . In foreign affairs the rule of Diaz was uneventful . There were transient disputes with the United States (1886, 1888) . In 1888–1890 and 1894–1895 a boundary dispute with Guatemala became serious . But Guatemala gave way at the See also:

• THREAT

threat of war (Jan .

1895) and a new treaty was made (April 1, 1895) . Again in 1907 there was some See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction owing to the murder of a Guatemalan ex-president by a compatriot in Mexico: later in the year, however, the Mexican government was active in stopping a war between its Central American neighbours . In the difficulty between See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England and the United States over the Venezuelan boundary (Dec . 1895) Mexico expressed strong adherence to the Monroe doctrine in the abstract, and suggested that its See also:

• MAINTENANCE (Fr. maintenance, from maintenir, to maintain, support, Lat. manu tenere, to hold in the hand)

maintenance should not be left wholly to the United States, but should be undertaken by all American Powers . The first See also:

• PAN (" pasturer ")
• PAN (common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Pfanne; it is generally taken to be an early adaptation in a shortened form of Lat. patina, shallow bowl or dish, from patere, to lie open)

Pan-American congress met in Mexico City in 19or, and the country was represented at the second, held in Rio Janeiro in 1906 . Mexico also took part in establishing the permanent Central American Court of See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

Arbitration, inaugurated on the 25th of May 1908 at See also:

• CARTAGO

Cartago, See also:

• COSTA, GIOVANNI (1826–1903)
• COSTA, LORENZO (146o-r535)
• COSTA, SIR MICHAEL ANDREW AGNUS (1808-1884)

Costa Rica, under the See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington See also:

• TREATIES

treaties of December 1907, and showed readiness to See also:

• ASSOCIATE (Lat. associates, from ad, to, and sociare to join)

associate herself with the Government of her great See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour in preserving peace among the Central American States . On the 17th of October 1909 President