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INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis...
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See also:INDIVIDUALISM (from See also:Lat. individualis, that which is not divided, an individual)
, in See also:political See also:philosophy, the theory of See also:government according to which the See also:good of the See also:state consists in the well-being and See also:free initiative of the component members
.
From this standpoint, as contrasted with that of the various forms of See also:socialism (q.v.) which subordinate the individual to the community, the community as such is an artificial unity
.
See also:Individualism is, however, by no means identical with See also:egoism, though egoism is always individualistic
.
An individualist may also be a conscientious altruist: he is by no means hostile to or aloof from society (any more than the socialist is necessarily hostile to the individual), but he is opposed to state interference with individual freedom wherever, in his See also:opinion, it can be avoided
.
The See also:practical distinction in See also:modern society is necessarily one of degree, and both " individualism." and " socialism " are very vaguely used, and generally as terms of reproach by opponents
.
Every practical politician of whatever party must necessarily combine inhis See also:programme individualistic and socialist principles
.
Extreme individualism is pure anarchy: on the other See also:hand See also: It distinguishes them from the other Aryans who settled in See also:Persia and elsewhere, just as the name " Aryo-See also:Indian " signifies those inhabitants of India who are Aryans, as distinguished from other Indian races, Dravidians, See also:Mundas and so on . A synonym of " Aryo-Indian " is " Gaudian " or " Gaurian," based on a See also:Sanskrit word for the non-See also:Dravidian parts of India proper . These two words refer to the See also:people from the point of view of India, while " Indo-Aryan " looks at them from the wider aspect of Indo-See also:European See also:ethnology and See also:philology . The See also:general See also:history of the Aryan languages is treated in the articles INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES and ARYAN . Here we propose to offer a brief See also:review of the See also:special course of their development in India . Most of the Indo-Aryans branched off from the See also:common Aryan stock in the See also:highlands of See also:Khokand and See also:Badakshan, and marched See also:south into what is now eastern See also:Afghanistan . Here some of them settled, while others entered the See also:Punjab by the valley of the See also:river See also:Kabul . This last See also:migration was a See also:gradual See also:process extending over several centuries, and at different epochs different tribes came in, speaking different dialects of the common See also:language . The See also:literary records of the latest times of this invasion show us one Indo-Aryan tribe complaining of the unintelligible speech of another, and even denying to it the right of common Aryan-See also:hood . The Pis¢ca Languages.—Before proceeding farther, it is advisable to discuss the See also:fate of another small See also:group of languages spoken in the extreme See also:north-See also:west of India . After the See also:great fission which separated the See also:main See also:body of the Indo-Aryans from the Iranians, but before all the special phonetic characteristics of Iranian speech had See also:developed, another See also:horde of invaders crossed the See also:Hindu Kush from the See also:Pamirs, journeying directly south . They occupied the submontane See also:tract, including the See also:country See also:round See also:Chitral and See also:Gilgit, See also:Kashmir and See also:Kafiristan .
Some even followed the course of the See also:Indus as far as See also:Sind, and formed colonies there and in the western Punjab
.
Here they mingled with the Indo-Aryans who had come down the Kabul valley, and to a certain extent infected the See also:local See also:dialect with their idioms
.
How far their See also:influence extended over the See also:rest of India is undecided, and will probably never be known, but traces of it have been detected by some inquirers even in the dialects of modern See also:Marathi
.
Those who remained behind in the See also: Their general character may be described as partly Indian and partly Iranian, although they have in their isolated position developed some phonetic See also:laws of their own . Indo-Aryan See also:Classification.—The oldest specimens of Indo-Aryan speech which we possess very closely resemble the oldest Iranian (see PERSIA: Language) . There are passages in the Iranian Avesta which can be turned into good Vedic Sanskrit by the application of a few See also:simple phonetic laws . It is sufficient for our present purposes to See also:note that after the separation the development of the two old forms of speech went on independently and followed somewhat different lines . This is most marked in the treatment of a nexus of two consonants . While modern Iranian often retains the nexus with little or no alteration, modern Indo-Aryan prefers to simplify it . For instance, while the old Aryan sth becomes sit or ist in modern See also:Persian, it becomes tth or th in modern Indo-Aryan . Similarly bhr becomes b*r in the former, but bbh or bh in the latter . Thus: Old Indo-Aryan . Old Iranian . Modern Persian . See also:Hindi . sthana- sterna- s'tan or istdn thank, a See also:place . bhrktar- bratar- b~radar badi, a See also:brother . The earliest extant literary See also:record of Indo-Aryan languages is the collection of See also:hymns known as the Rig-Veda . As we have it now, we may take it as representing, on the whole, the particular See also:vernacular dialect spoken in the See also:east of the Punjab and in the upper portion of the Gangetic See also:Doab where it was compiled . The tribe which spoke this dialect spread east and south, and their See also:habitat, as so extended, between the Punjab and the modern See also:Allahabad and reaching from the See also:Himalaya to the See also:Vindhya Hills in the south, became known to Sanskrit geographers as the Miadhyadefa or "Midland," also called Ary'dvarta, or the " home of the Aryans." The language spoken here received See also:constant literary culture, and a refined See also:form of its archaic dialect became fixed by the labours of grammarians about the See also:year 300 B.C., receiving the name of Samskr1a (Sanskrit) or " purified, in contradistinction to the folk-speech of the same tract and to the many Indo-Aryan dialects of other parts of India, all of which were grouped together under the See also:title of Pritkr1a (See also:Prakrit) or "natural," " unpurified." Sanskrit (q.v.) became the language of See also:religion and polite literature, and thus the Midland, the native See also:land of its See also:mother dialect, became accepted as the true pure home of the Indo-Aryan people, the rest being, from the point of view of educated India, more or less barbarous . In later times, the great lingua franca of India, See also:Hindostani, also took its origin in this tract . Round the Midland, on three sides—west, south and east—See also:lay a country inhabited, even in Vedic times, by other Indo-Aryan tribes . This tract included the modern Punjab, Sind, See also:Gujarat, See also:Rajputana with the country to its east, Oudh and See also:Behar . Rajputana belongs geographically to the Midland, but it was a See also:late See also:conquest, and for, our present purposes may be considered as belonging to the See also:Outer See also:Band . The various Indo-Aryan dialects spoken over this band were all more closely related to each other than was any of them to the language of the Midland . In fact, at an See also:early See also:period of the linguistic history of India there must have been two sets of Indo-Aryan dialects,—one the language of the Midland and the other that of the Outer Band.' Hoernle was the first to suggest that the dialects of the Outer Band represent on the whole the language of the earlier Indo-Aryan immigrants,while the language of the Midland ' Attempts have been made to discover See also:dialectic See also:variations in the Veda itself, and, as originally composed in various parts of the Punjab widely distant from each other, the hymns probably did contain many such . But they have been edited by compilers whose home was in the Midland, and now their language is fairly See also:uniform throughout . In the time of See also:Asoka (250 B.C.) there were at least two dialects, an eastern and a western, as well as another in the extreme north-west . The grammarian Patafijali (15o B.c.) mentions the existence of several dialects . was that of the latest corners, who entered the Punjab like a See also:wedge and thrust the others outwards in three directions . As time went on, the See also:population of the Midland See also:expanded and forced the Outer Band into a still wider See also:circuit . The Midland conquered the eastern Punjab, Rajputana with Gujarat (where it reached the See also:sea) and Oudh . With its armies and its settlers it carried its language, and hence in all these territories we now find mixed forms of speech . The basis of each is that of the Outer Band, but the body is that of the Midland . Moreover, as we leave the Midland and approach the See also:external See also:borders of this tract, the influence of the Midland language grows weaker and weaker, and traces of the See also:original Outer language become more and more prominent . In the same way the languages of the Outer Band were forced farther and farther afield . There was no See also:room for expansion to the west, but to the south it flowed over the Maratha country, and to the east into See also:Orissa, into See also:Bengal and, last of all, into See also:Assam . The state of affairs at the present day is therefore as follows: There is a Midland Indo-Aryan language (Western Hindi) occupying the Gangetic Doab and the country immediately to its north and south . Round it, on three sides, is a band of mixed languages, See also:Panjabi (of the central Punjab), See also:Gujarati, See also:Rajasthani (of Rajputana and its neighbourhood), and Eastern Hindi (of Oudh and the country to its south) . Beyond these again, there is the band of Outer Languages (Kashmiri, with its Pisaca basis), See also:Lahnda (of the western Punjab), See also:Sindhi (here the band is broken by Gujarati), Marathi, See also:Oriya (of Orissa), See also:Bihari, See also:Bengali and See also:Assamese . There are also, at the present day, Indo-Aryan languages in the Himalaya, north of the Midland . These belong to the Intermediate Band, being See also:recent importations from Rajputana . The Midland language is there-fore now enclosed within a See also:ring fence of Intermediate forms of speech . We have seen that the word " Prakrit " means " natural " or " vernacular, " as opposed to the " purified " literary Sanskrit . From this point of view every vernacular of India, from the earliest times, is a Prakrit . The Rig-Veda itself, composed See also:long before the See also:birth of " purified " Sanskrit, can only be considered as written in an old vernacular, and its language, together with the other contemporary Indo-Aryan dialects which never attained to the See also:honour of " See also:purification," may be called the See also:Primary Prakrits of India . If we compare literary Sanskrit with classical Latin (see Brandreth, " The Gaurian compared with the See also:Romance Languages," See also:Journal of the Royal See also:Asiatic Society xi . (1879), 287; xii . (188o), 335), then these Primary Prakrits correspond to the old See also:Italic dialects See also:con-temporary with and related to the literary language of See also:Rome . They were synthetic languages with fairly complicated grammars, no objection to harsh combinations of consonants, and several grammatical forms See also:strange to the classical speech . In the course of centuries (while literary Sanskrit remained stereotyped) they decayed into Secondary Prakrits . These still remained synthetic, and still retained the non-classical forms of See also:grammar, but diphthongs and harsh combinations of consonants were eschewed . They now corresponded to the See also:post-classical Italic dialects . Just as Sanskrit (and the Primary Prakrits) knew of a See also:city called Kausambi, which was known as Kosambi to the Secondary Prakrits, so the real Umbrian name of the poet known to literature as See also:Plautus was See also:Plot(u)s . Again, as the Latin lactuca became lattuca, so the Primary Prakrit bhakta- became the Secondary bhatta- . In India, the dislike to harsh consonantal sounds, a sort of glottic laziness, finally led to a See also:condition of almost absolute fluidity, each word of the Secondary Prakrits ultimately becoming an emasculated collection of vowels See also:hanging on to an occasional consonant . This weakness brought its own See also:Nemesis and from, say, A.D . 1000 we find in existehce the See also:series of modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars, or, as they may be called, See also:Tertiary Prakrits, closely corresponding to the modern Romance languages . Here we find the See also:hiatus between contiguous vowels abolished by the creation of new diphthongs, declensional and conjugational terminations consisting merely of vowels becoming worn away, and new languages appearing, no longer synthetic,but See also:analytic, and again reverting to combinations of consonants under new forms, which had existed three thousand years ago, but which two thousand years of See also:attrition had caused to vanish . It is impossible to See also:fix any approximate date for the change from the Primary to the Secondary Prakrits . We see sporadic traces of the secondary See also:stage already occurring in the Rig-Veda itself, of which the See also:canon was closed about See also:i000 B.C . At any See also:rate Secondary Prakrits were the current vernacular at the time of the See also:emperor Asoka (250 B.c.) . Their earliest stage was that of what is now called See also:Pali, the sacred language of the Buddhists, which forms the subject of a See also:separate See also:article (see PALI) . A still later and more abraded stage is also discussed under the See also:head of PRAKRIT . This stage is known as that of the Prakrit See also:par excellence . When we talk of Prakrit without any qualifying epithet, we usually mean this later stage of the Secondary Prakrits, when they had developed beyond the stage of Pali, but before they had reached the analytic stage of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars . The next, and final, stage of the Secondary Prakrits was that of the Apabhratsas . The word Apabhrarimsa means " corrupt " or " decayed," and was applied to the vernaculars in contrast to the Prakrit par excellence, which had in its turn (like Sanskrit and Pali) become stereotyped by being employed for literature . It is these Apabhrarinfas which are the See also:direct parents of the modern vernacular . The following is a See also:list of the Indo-Aryan vernaculars, showing, when known, the names of the Apabhramsas from which they are sprung, and the number of speakers of each in the year See also:tool: Apabhrantsa . Modern Language . Nof Number Speakers . Saurasena A . Language of the Midland . 40,714,925 Western Hindi Avanta B . Intermediate Languages . 10,917,712 Rajasthani See also:Pahari Languages 3,124,681 Gaurjara . . . Gujarati 9,439,925 Saurasena . . . Panjabi 17,070,961 Ardhamagadha . Eastern Hindi 22,136,358 Unknown . . . C . Outer Languages . 1,007,957 (a) North-Western Group . Kashmiri (with a Pisaca basis) (unknown) Kohistani (with a Pisaca 3,337,917 basis) Lahnda or Western Panjabi Vraca . . Sindhi 3,494,971 Maharastra . . (b) See also:Southern Language . 18,237,899 Marathi See also:Magadha . . (c) Eastern Group . 34,579,844 Bihari Oriya 9,687,429 Bengali 44,624,048 Assamese 1,350,846 See also:Total . . More than 219,725,473 these, the Paha.ri languages are offshoots of Rajasthani imported into the Himalaya . Kohistani includes the mixed dialects of the See also:Swat and Indus Kohistans . The See also:census of 1901 did not extend to these tracts . A full See also:account of the Apabhramsas will be found in the article PRAKRJT . Although the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars are not derived from Sanskrit, and though all, or nearly all, are not derived from the language of the Rig-Veda, nevertheless, as these See also:Aire almost the only See also:sources of our See also:information as to what the Primary Prakrits of India were, and as all Primary Prakrits were related to these two and were in approximately the same stage of phonetic development, they afford a convenient means for carrying out See also:historical investigation into the origin of all the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars to its legitimate conclusion . At the same time they are not always trustworthy guides, and sometimes fail to explain forms derived from other See also:ancient contemporary dialects, the originals of which were unknown to the Vedic and classical literature . A striking example is the origin of the very common locative suffix -e . This can be traced through the A pabhrarizsa -hi to the Pali -dhi . There all Indian clues cease, and it is not till we recognize its relationship to the See also:Greek -BI that we understand that it is an ancient Indo-European termination kept alive in India by some of the Primary Prakrits, but ignored both by the dialect of the Rig-Veda and by literary Sanskrit . With this See also:reservation, a See also:short comparison of Sanskrit with the Secondary and Tertiary Prakrit developments will be of See also:interest . As the Pali and Prakrit stages are fully treated under their proper heads, very brief references to them will be sufficient . A . Vocabulary.—The ground of all the vocabularies of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars is, of course, the vocabulary of Aryan India in the Vedic period . Thousands of words have descended from the earliest times and are still in existence, after passing through certain changes subject to well-known phonetic laws . As many of these laws are the same for every language, it follows that a large stock of words; which principally differ in inflection, is common to all these modern forms of speech . These words, which natives believe to be derived from Sanskrit itself, are called by them t,¢dbhava, i.e . " having ' that ' (sc . Sanskrit, or, more correctly, the Primary Prakrit) for its origin." As the language of the Midland is derived from the old dialect of which Sanskrit is the " polished " form, it is approximately true to say that it is derived from that form of speech, and its native vocabulary (allowing for phonetic development) may be said to be the same as that of Sanskrit . But the farther we go from the See also:Mid-land, the more examples we meet of a new class of words which natives of India See also:call desya or " country-See also:born." Most of these are really also tadbhavas, descendants of the old Primary Prakrit dialects spoken outside the Midland, of whose existence native scholars took no account . Finally, owing to the ever-present influence of literary Sanskrit, words are, and have been for many generations, borrowed direct from that language . Some of these borrowed words are due to the existence of Sanskrit as the language of religion . Their use is paralleled by the employment of Greek and Latin words for religious technical terms in all the languages of See also:Europe . Others are technical terms of arts and sciences, but most of those which we meet are simply employed for the See also:sake of See also:fine language, much as if some purist were to insist on employing hlaford instead of See also:lord " in See also:writing See also:English . These Sanskrit words are known as tatsama or " the same as' that ' (sc . Sanskrit)." The number of tatsamas employed varies much . In languages such as Panjabi which have little or no literature, and in the speech of the peasantry all over India, they are few in number . In the modern literary Bengali a false See also:standard of literary See also:taste has led to their employment in overwhelming See also:numbers, and the homely vigorous home-speech, which is itself capable of expressing every See also:idea that the mind of See also:man can conceive, flounders about awkwardly enough under the See also:weight of its borrowed plumes . The native vocabulary of the modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars is thus made up of ladbhavas, desyas and tatsamas . The Dravidian languages of southern India have also contributed a small See also:quota to the Indo-Aryan vocabulary . Most of the words have been given a See also:colour of contempt in the process of borrowing . Thus the word pilla, a cub, is really the Dravidian pillai, a son . But the most important See also:accretion from outside comes from Persian, and (through Persian) from Arabic . This is due to See also:Mahommedan influence . In the See also:Mogul courts Persian was for long the language of politeness and literature, and words belonging to it filtered into all stages of society . The proportion of these Persian words varies greatly in the different languages . In some forms of Western Hindi they have almost monopolized the vocabulary, while in others, such as Bengali and Marathi, the number is very few . Instances of borrowing from other languages are of small importance . B . See also:Phonetics.—The See also:alphabet of the Indo-Aryan languages is, on the whole, the same as that of Sanskrit (q.v.), and the See also:system of transliteration adopted for that language is also followed for them.' Some new sounds have, however, developed in the Secondary and Tertiary Prakrits . New signs will be used for them, and will be explained in the proper places . Sanskrit knew only long e and b, but already in the Secondary Prakrits we find a corresponding short pair, Band o, of which the use is considerably extended in the tertiary stage . The N agari (see SANSKRIT) and allied alphabets, when employed for modern Indo-Aryan languages or for Prakrit, are transliterated in this See also:work according to the following system: a a i i u u r i' e e ai aI o o au au m (anusvara) 00 (anunasika) (visarga) . k kh g gh' r"c c (ts) ch (tsh) j ((la) jh ((fah) Cs t th d (r) dh (rh) 1 Ih u t th d dh n p ph b bh m yrIv(w) s$sh . Special sounds employed by particular languages are described in the articles in which reference is made to them . Here we may mention 4, sounded like the aw in " See also:law," and a, o, u, pronounced as in See also:German . The Sanskrit diphthongs ai and an disappeared in the secondary stage, e and o being substituted for them respectively . On the other hand, in the same stage, we frequently come across pairs of vowels, such as ai, au, with a hiatus between the two members . In the tertiary stage, these pairs have been combined into new diphthongs ai and au, shorter in See also:pronunciation than ai and an . The pronunciation of ai and ai may be compared with that of the English " aye " and " I " respectively . In the languages of the Outer Band, there is again a tendency to weaken this new ai to e, and the new an to ei . All the tertiary languages weaken a short final vowel . In most it is elided altogether in See also:prose, but in some of those of the Outer Band (Kashmiri, Sindhi and Bihari) it is See also:half pronounced . Some of the Outer languages have also developed a new a-See also:sound, corresponding to that of a in the German See also:Mann . The stress-See also:accent of classical Sanskrit has as a See also:rule been preserved throughout . In the tertiary stage it generally resolves itself into falling on the ante-penultimate, if the penultimate is short . If the latter is long it takes the accent . In the eastern-languages there is a tendency to throw the accent even farther back . There is also everywhere a tendency to lighten the pronunciation of a short vowel after an accented syllable, so that it is barely audible . Thus, calata for cdlata . In some dialects, e.g. the See also:Urdu form of Western Hindi, this " imperfect " vowel has altogether disappeared, as in calla . The tertiary languages have on the whole preserved the consonantal system of the secondary stage, preferring, however, as a rule, to simplify See also:double consonants, with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel . Thus, for Sanskrit hasta-, a hand, we have Secondary Prakrit hattha-, Tertiary See also:bath . Some tertiary languages have both hatth and hath: others (like Gujarati) have only bath: while others (like Panjabi) have only hatth . In the extreme north-west, Sindhi and Lahnda, under the influence of the Pisaca languages, simplify the double consonant without compensatory lengthening, so that we have hath . Again, many languages of the Outer Band show a tendency to avoid aspiration, so that Kashmiri, Marathi, Bengali and others have See also:hat .. It is well known that the Iranian languages change s to h . The Tertiary Prakrits of the Outer Band find analogous difficulty in pronouncing a sibilant . The north-western languages change it to has in Persian . Marathi changes s to s before palatal sounds, and the same change occurs in Bengali in the See also:case of every uncompounded sibilant . Eastern Bengali and Assamese go farther . Here s is again sounded almost like h . On the other hand, in the Midland, s rarely becomes h and then only when medial . In the Outer languages the palatal consonants are also liable to change; j and jh approach the sound of z, and c and ch often become ts, or, in the East, a simple s . Thus, the Midland cakar, a servant, is pronounced tsakar in Marathi, and the Midland See also:mach, a See also:fish, is sounded mas in Marathi, Bengali and Assamese . C . Declension.—In the latest stage of the Secondary Prakrits the neuter gender begins to disappear, and in the tertiary stage, except in Gujarati and Marathi, it is nearly altogether wanting . Elsewhere we only come across occasional See also:relics of its employment . In some of the tertiary languages grammatical gender, as distinct from sexual gender, has disappeared as entirely as it has in English . The dual number had already fallen into disuse in the Secondary Prakrits . In the secondary stage we see a gradual simplification of grammatical form and a disappearance of case endings . The complicated Sanskrit system is more and more superseded by the simple uniformity of the declension of a-bases . One by one the case endings were discarded, and cases were confounded with one another till at Iength in Apabhramsa only one or two forms remained for each number . In the tertiary stage there remain in most languages only two cases, which we may call the nominative and the oblique . The latter can be employed for any case except the nominative, but the sense is usually defined by the aid of help-words called postpositions.2 It is a linguistic rule that languages in which the genitive precedes the governing noun prefer suffixes to prefixes and See also:vice versa;' and, as the See also:genius of the Indo-Aryan languages does require the genitive to be prefixed, these help-words take the form of suffixes . In the Midland they are still separate words, but in the Outer Band each has in general become incorporated with the main word to which it is attached . Thus, the Midland ghora, a See also:horse, has its oblique form ghore, genitive ghore See also:leer, but Bengali has oblique form ghora, genitive ghdrar contracted from ghora-k(k)ar . The ground principles of declension in all tertiary languages are the same, but as each employs different postpositions the systems of declension vary considerably . Marathi is the only true Indo-Aryan language which has preserved anything more than sporadic relics of the old system of case termifih.-tions . D . Conjugation.—Two tenses, the present and the imperative, of the old synthetic system of conjugation have survived in all the Tertiary Prakrits, and in some of them we also find the ancient future . All other tenses are now made periphrastically, mostly with the aid of participles to which See also:auxiliary verbs may or may not be added . The participles employed are all survivals of the old participles of the present, of the past and (in some languages) of the 2 The origin of the postpositions is discussed in the article HINDOSTANI . 3 See P . W . See also:Schmidt in Mitteilungen der Wiener Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, xxxiii . 381 . future . The past and future participles are passive in their origin, and hence tenses formed with these participles must be construed passively . Thus, instead of " I struck him " we must say, either he was struck by me," or else (impersonally) " it was struck by me with reference to him." So, for an intransitive verb we have, either " I am gone," or " it is gone by me." In the language of the Midland this is quite simple and clear, but in those of the Outer Band the subject (in the instrumental, or as it is usually called " See also:agent " case) is indicated by means of pronominal suffixes attached to the participle or auxiliary verb; thus (Bengali) marila+am, struck+by-me, becomes marilam, I struck . In such cases all memory of the passive meaning of the participle is lost by the eastern languages, and it, together with the appropriate pronominal suffixes, becomes in See also:appearance and in practical use an See also:ordinary past tense conjugated as in Latin or in Sanskrit . It is an instance of reversion to the original type; first synthetic, then analytic, and then again a new synthetic conjugation . In the other languages of the Outer Band, the memory of the passive nature of the participle is retained, although the conjugation is as synthetic as in the East, and the subject has to be put into the " agent " case . See also:Geology.—The deltaic tracts of the See also:Mekong and Red river are composed of See also:alluvium (generally silicious See also:clay) deposited by the See also:rivers . The mountains from which this See also:soil is derived are granitic in formation, the framework being almost always See also:schists of ancient date, dislocated, folded and occasionally rounded into hills moo to 1300 ft. in height, belonging to the Devonian period . Above these schists See also:lie—more especially in the north and south of See also:Tongking—See also:marbles and other highly crystalline limestones, upon which rest, unconformably in places (Nong-Son, Ke-Bao, Hon-See also:Gay), Carboniferous formations . In the upper See also:part of the Red river valley See also:rich deposits of See also:coal have been found between Yen-See also:Bay and See also:Hai-Duong, in a considerable tract of Tertiary See also:rock . See also:Limestone occurs also in the valley of the Mekong, forming an extensive See also:massif in the See also:district of Lakhon and in the basins of the Nam-Ka-Dinh and Nam-Hin-See also:Bun . These limestones appear to be Carboniferous . In the region south of Lakhon the rock is Triassic, and See also:gold has been found in several districts . The natives collect it in very small quantities by a washing process . In the lateral valleys of the Mekong See also:copper and See also:tin are found . On the course of the Nam-See also:Paton, a tributary of the Natn-Hin-Bun, the natives work a moderately productive tin-mine . Layers of spicgeleisen, See also:limonite and other See also:iron ores are numerous in the See also:Laos states, in which also See also:antimony occurs . See also:Climate.—The climate of Indo-See also:China is that of an inter-tropical country, See also:damp and hot . But the difference between the southern and See also:northern regions is marked, as regards both temperature and See also:meteorology . See also:Cochin-China and See also:Cambodia have very See also:regular seasons, corresponding with the monsoons . The north-easterly See also:monsoon blows from about the 15th of See also:October to the 15th of See also:April. within a day or so . The temperature remains almost steady durin% this time, varying but slightly from 78.8° to 8o•6° F. by day to 68 INDO-CHINA, See also:FRENCH.' The See also:geographical See also:denomination of French Indo-China includes the protectorates of See also:Annam, Tongking and Cambodia, the See also:colony of Cochin-China and part of the Laos country . In 1900 the newly-acquired territory of Kwang-Chow Bay, on the See also:coast of China, was placed under the authority of the See also:governor-general of Indo-China . Cochin-China, a geographical See also:definition which formerly included all the countries in the Annamese See also:empire—Tongking, Annam and Cochin-China—now signifies only the French colony, consiEting of the " southern provinces " originally conquered from Annam, having See also:Saigon as its See also:capital . In its entirety French Indo-China, the eastern portion of the Indo-See also:Chinese See also: |