See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

INSCRIPTIONS (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. inscribere, to write upon)  , the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general See also:

• TERM

term for writings cut on See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone or See also:

• METAL
• METAL (through Fr. from Lat. metallum, mine, quarry, adapted from Gr. µATaXAov, in the same sense, probably connected with ,ueraAAdv, to search after, explore, µeTa, after, aAAos, other)

metal, the subject See also:

• MATTER

matter of See also:

• EPIGRAPHY (Gr. E7rl, on, and 7ph4ew, to write)

epigraphy . See generally See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

WRITING and See also:

• PALAEOGRAPHY (Gr. aaXalbs, ancient, and ypal6ew, to write)

PALAEOGRAPHY . Under this heading it is convenient here to See also:

• DEAL

deal more specifically with four See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient See also:

• INSCRIPTIONS (from Lat. inscribere, to write upon)

inscriptions, Semitic, See also:

• INDIAN

Indian, See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and Latin, but further See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information will be found in numerous See also:

• SEPARATE

separate articles on philological subjects . See especially See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

CUNEIFORM . BABYLONIA AND See also:

• ASSYRIA

ASSYRIA, SU'MER, BEIHSTUN, See also:

• EGYPT

EGYPT (See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

Language and Writing), ETIIIOPIA, PHo-NICIA, See also:

• ARABIA

ARABIA, See also:

• HITTITES

HITTITES, See also:

• SABAEANS

SABAEANS, MINAEANS, See also:

• ETRURIA

ETRURIA, See also:

• AEGEAN

AEGEAN See also:

• CIVILIZATION

CIVILIZATION, See also:

• CRETE (Gr. Kp;rrrr; Turk. Kirid, Ital. Candia)

CRETE, See also:

• CYPRUS
• CYPRUS, CHURCH OF

CYPRUS, See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

BRITAIN, SCANDINAVIAN See also:

• LANGUAGES

LANGUAGES, See also:

• TEUTONIC
• TEUTONIC (GERMANIC) LANGUAGES

TEUTONIC LANGUAGES, CENTRAL See also:

• AMERICA

AMERICA: See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology, &c . I . SEMITIC INSCRIPTIONS Excluding cuneiform (q.v.), the inscriptions known as Semitic are usually classed under two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main heads as See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South Semitic . The former class includes See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew (with Moabite), Phoenician (with Punic and neo-Punic), and Aramaic (with Nabataean and Palmyrene) . The South Semitic class includes the Minaean and Sabaean inscriptions of South Arabia . In most of these departments there has been a very large increase of material during See also:

• RECENT

recent years, some of which is of the highest See also:

• HISTORICAL

historical and palaeographical importance . The North Semitic monuments have received the greater See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share of See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention because of their more general See also:

• INTEREST

interest in connexion with the See also:

• HISTORY

history of surrounding countries . 1 .

North Semitic.—The earliest authority for any North Semitic language is that of the Tel-el-Amarna tablets (15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C.) which contain certain " Canaanite glosses,"1 i.e . North Semitic words written in cuneiform characters . From these to the first inscription found in the North Semitic See also:

• ALPHABET (see also WRITING)

alphabet, there is an See also:

• INTERVAL

interval of about six centuries . The See also:

• STELE

stele of Mesha, commonly called the Moabite Stone, was set up in the 9th century B.C. to commemorate the success of See also:

• MOAB

Moab in shaking off the Israelitish See also:

• RULE

rule . It is of See also:

• GREAT

great value, both historically as See also:

• RELATING

relating to events indicated in 2 See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings i . 1, iii . 5, &c., and linguistic-ally as exhibiting a language almost identical with Hebrew—that is to say, another See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of the same Canaanitish language . It was discovered in 1868 by the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German missionary, See also:

• KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810–1876)

Klein, on the site of Dibon, intact, but was afterwards broken up by the See also:

• ARABS

Arabs . The fragments,) collected with great difficulty by Clermont-Ganneau and others, are now in the Louvre . Its genuineness was contested by A . Lowy (Scottish See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review, 1887; republished, See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin, 1903) and recently again by G . See also:

• JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-1852)
• JAHN, JOHANN (1750—1816)
• JAHN, OTTO (1813—1869)

Jahn (appendix to Das See also:

• BUCK
• BUCK, CARL DARLING (1866– )
• BUCK, DUDLEY (1839-1909)

Buck See also:

• DANIEL
• DANIEL (DANIL)
• DANIEL, BOOK
• DANIEL, GABRIEL (1649-1728)

Daniel, See also:

• LEIPZIG

Leipzig, 1904), but, although there are many difficulties connected with the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text, its authenticity is generally admitted .

See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

Early Hebrew inscriptions are at See also:

• PRESENT

present few and meagre, although it cannot be doubted that others would be found by excavating suitable sites . The most important is that discovered in 1880 in the See also:

• TUNNEL (Fr. tonne!, later tonneau, a diminutive from Low Lat. tonna, tunna, a tun, cask)

tunnel of the See also:

• POOL

pool of Siloam, commemorating the piercing of the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock . It is generally believed to refer, to See also:

• HEZEKIAH (Heb. for " [my] strength is [of] Yah ")

Hezekiah:'s See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme for supplying See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem with See also:

• WATER

water (2 Kings xx . 20), and therefore to date from about 700 B.C . It consists of six lines in See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good Hebrew, and is the only early Hebrew inscription of any length . The See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character does not differ from that of the Moabite Stone, except in the slightly cursive tendency of its curved strokes, due no doubt to their having been traced for the stone-cutter by a See also:

• SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1860, French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which unfortunately

scribe who was used to writing on See also:

• PARCHMENT

parchment . There are also a few inscribed See also:

• SEALS

seals dating from before the See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

Exile, some factory marks and an engraved See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital at al-Amwas, which last may, however, be Samaritan . Otherwise this character is only found (as the result of an archaizing tendency) on coins of the Hasmoneans, and, still later, on those of the first and second (See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

Bar Kokhba's) revolts . The new Hebrew character, which See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed into the See also:

• MODERN

modern square character, is first found in a name of five letters at `Araqal-See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

amir, of the and century B.C . Somewhat later, but probably of the 1st century B.C., is the tombstone of the B'ne IJetir (" See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

Tomb of St See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James ") at Jerusalem . An inscription on a ruined See also:

• SYNAGOGUE (avvaywyii)
• SYNAGOGUE, UNITED

synagogue at Kafr Bir'See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im, near Safed, perhaps of about A.D . 300, or earlier, shows the fully developed square character .

- Since the publication of the Corpus Inscr . Senn it has been customary to treat papyri along with inscriptions, and for palaeographical reasons it is convenient to do so . Hebrew papyri are few, all in square character and. not of great interest . The longest, and probably the earliest (6th century A.D.), is one now in the Bodleian Library at See also:

• OXFORD
• OXFORD, EARLS OF
• OXFORD, EDWARD DE VERE, 17TH EARL
• OXFORD, JOHN DE VERE, 13TH EARL OF (1443-1513)
• OXFORD, PROVISIONS OF
• OXFORD, ROBERT DE VERE, 9TH EARL OF (1362-1392)
• OXFORD, ROBERT HARLEY, 1ST

Oxford, containing a private 'See Winckler in See also:

• SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908)

Schrader's Keilinschr . Bibl. v . (Berlin, &c., 1896) . 2 A nearly See also:

• COMPLETE

complete text has been made from these with the help of a squeeze taken before its destruction . See the handbooks mentioned below . See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter' written in a character closely resembling that of the Kafr Bir'im inscription . Other fragments were published by See also:

• STEINSCHNEIDER, MORITZ (1816-1907)

Steinschneider 2 (perhaps 8th century), and by D . H . Moller and See also:

• KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH (1818-1882)

Kaufmann .3 Hebrew inscriptions outside See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine are the cursive graffiti in the catacombs at See also:

• VENOSA (anc. Venusia, q.v.)

Venosa (2nd—5th century), the magical texts on Babylonian See also:

• BOWLS

bowls (7th–8th century), and the numerous tomb-stones 4 in various parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, of all periods from the 6th century to the present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time .

The few Samaritan inscriptions in existence are neither early nor interesting . Closely related to the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews, both politically and in language, were the Phoenicians in North See also:

• SYRIA

Syria . Their monuments in See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia itself are few and not earlier than the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest yet found, dating probably from the 5th or 4th century B.c., is that of Yebaw-See also:

• MILK (0. Eng. meoluc; from a common Indo-European root, cf. Lat. mulgere, Gr. ?t dXyetv)

milk, See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of Gebal (modern See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel) or Byblus, where it was found . It records at some length the See also:

• DEDICATION (Lat. dedicatio, from dedicare, to proclaim, to announce)

dedication of buildings, &c., to the goddess of Gebal . Of the 3rd century B.C. are the inscriptions on the sarcophagi of Tabnith and his son Eshmun'azar, kings of See also:

• SIDON (Phoen. ins, Hebrew 1-rs, Assyr. Sidunnu, Egypt. Diduna)

Sidon, and some records of other members of the same See also:

• FAMILY

family, Bod-'ashtart and his son Yathan-milk, found in 1902 a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short distance north of Sidon . Outside Phoenicia the inscriptions are numerous and widely scattered See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the Mediterranean coasts, following the course of Phoenician See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade . The earliest is that on some fragments of three See also:

• BRONZE

bronze bowls, dedicated to See also:

• BAAL

Baal of See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon, found in Cyprus . The character is like that of the Moabite Stone, and the date is probably the 8th century B.C., though some scholars would put it nearer to r000 B.C . In the latter See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case, the Hiram, king of Sidon, mentioned in the inscriptions would be the same as Hiram, king of See also:

• TYRE (Phoen. and Hebr. =" rock," Assyr. S'urru, Egypt. Dara, Early Lat. Sarra)

Tyre, in See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon's time . Similar bowls (of about 700 B.c.) found at Nimrud sometimes See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear the maker's name in Phoenician characters . Many monumental inscriptions have also been found in Cyprus, at Kition, Idalion, Tamassos, &c .

They are chiefly votive, some dated in the 4th century, and some being perhaps as See also:

• LATE

late as the 2nd century B.C., so that they afford valuable See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence as to the See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of the See also:

• LOCAL

local kings . Several also are bilingual, and it was one of these which supplied See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith with the See also:

• CLUE

clue to the Cypriote syllabic See also:

• SYSTEM

system of writing Greek . Similar memorials of Phoenician settlements were found at See also:

• ATHENS
• ATHENS ['AN vat, Athenae, modem colloquial Greek `Ath va]

Athens (Piraeus), in Egypt, See also:

• SARDINIA (Gr. 'IXs'o"uva, from a fancied resemblance to a footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna)

Sardinia, See also:

• MALTA
• MALTA (or MEDITERRANEAN) FEVER

Malta and See also:

• GOZO (Gozzo)

Gozo . Most interesting of all is the celebrated sacrificial tablet of See also:

• MARSEILLES

Marseilles, giving an elaborate See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

tariff of payments at or for the various offerings, and showing some striking analogies with the directions in the See also:

• BOOK

book of See also:

• LEVITICUS

Leviticus . For the information it gives as to See also:

• CIVIL

civil and priestly organization, it is the most important Phoenician text inexistence . It was probably brought from See also:

• CARTHAGE
• CARTHAGE (Phoenician Kart-hadshat, " New City "; Gr. Kapxn5c; v, Lat. Carthago or Carchedon)
• CARTHAGE, SYNODS OF

Carthage, where similar tariffs have been found . On the site of that important See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony, and indeed throughout the parts of North See also:

• AFRICA
• AFRICA, ROMAN

Africa once subject to its rule, Punic inscriptions are, as might be expected, very numerous . By far the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority are votive tablets, probably belonging to the period between the 4th and the and centuries B.C., many of them in a wonderfully perfect See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of preservation . One of the most interesting, recently discovered, mentions a high-priestess who was See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college of priests, and whose See also:

• HUSBAND

husband's family had been suffetes for four generations . Later inscriptions, called neo-Punic, dating from the fall of Carthage to about the 1st century A.D., are written in a debased character and language differing in several respects from the earlier Punic, and presenting many difficulties . In Aramaic the earliest inscriptions are three found in 189o–1891 at and near Zinjirli in North-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west Syria, dating from the 8th century B.C . Of these, one was set up by See also:

• PANAMINT

Panamint, king of Ya'dl, in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of the See also:

• GOD

god See also:

• HADAD

Hadad, and is inscribed on a 1 Published with other fragments in the See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew .

Quart . Review, xvi . I . 2 Zeitsch. f . Aegypt . Spr . (1879) . These were the first specimens found . See also See also:

• ERMAN, PAUL (1764-1851)

Erman and Krebs, Aus den See also:

• PAPYRUS

Papyrus d. kgl . See also:

• MUS

Mus. p . 290 (Berlin, 1899) . ' Mittheilungen .

. . Rainer, i . 38 (Wien, 1886) . 4 Those in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France were collected by Schwab in Nouvelles archives, xii . 3 . See also Chwolson, Corpus Inscr . Hebr . (St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, 1882).statue of him, the other two were set up by Bar-rekub, son of Panammu, one in honour of his See also:

• FATHER

father and on his statue, the second commemorating the erection of his new See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house . They are remarkable as being engraved in See also:

• RELIEF

relief, a peculiarity which has been thought to be due to " Hittite " See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence . Otherwise the character resembles that of the Moabite Stone . The texts consist of 77 lines (not all legible), giving a good deal of information about an obscure See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place and period hitherto known only from cuneiform See also:

• SOURCES

sources . The ornamentation is See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian in See also:

• STYLE
• STYLE (from Gr. a-6'1ms, a column; a different word from that used in literature, see below)

style, as also is that of the inscriptions of Nerab (near See also:

• ALEPPO (native Haleb)

Aleppo), commemorative texts engraved on statues of priests, of about the 7th century .

Of shorter inscriptions there is a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series from about the 8th century s.C., on bronze weights found at See also:

• NINEVEH (Heb. m}'?, in classical authors Nivos, Ninus; LXX. Ntsetni, Nnveun: Assyrian Nind or Ninua)

Nineveh (generally accompanied by an Assyrian version), and as "dockets "b to cuneiform See also:

• CONTRACT
• CONTRACT (Lat. contract us, from contrahere, to draw together, to bind)

contract-tablets, giving a brief indication of the contents . Aramaic, being the commercial language of the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, was naturally used for this purpose in business documents . For the same See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason it is found in the 6th–4th centuries B.C. sporadic-ally in various regions, as in See also:

• CILICIA

Cilicia, in See also:

• LYCIA

Lycia 6 (with a Greek version), at See also:

• ABYDOS

Abydos (on a See also:

• WEIGHT

weight) . At Taima also, in North Arabia, an important trading centre, besides shorter texts, a very interesting inscription of twenty-three lines was found, recording the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation and endowment of a new See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

temple, probably in the 5th century B.C . But by far the most extensive collection of early Aramaic texts comes from Egypt, where the language was used not only for trade purposes, as elsewhere, but also officially under the Persian rule . From See also:

• MEMPHIS

Memphis there is a funeral inscription dated in the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth See also:

• YEAR

year of See also:

• XERXES (the Greek form of the Pers. Khshayarsha; Old Testament Ahasverus, Akhashverosh—i.e. Ahasuerus (q.v.)—with wrong vocalization and substitution of y for v, instead of Akhshavarsh; in Aramaic inscriptions and papyri from Egypt the name is written Khs

Xerxes (482 B.C.), and a dedication on a bowl of about the same date . A stele recently published by de See also:

• VOGUE, EUGENE MELCHIOR, COMTE DE (1848- )

Vogue' is dated 458 B.C . Another which is now at See also:

• CARPENTRAS

Carpentras in France (place of origin unknown) is probably not much later . At Elephantine and See also:

• ASSUAN

Assuan in Upper Egypt, a number of ostraka have been dug up, dating from the 5th century B.C. and onward, all difficult to read anil explain, but interesting for the popular character of their contents, style and writing . There was a Jewish (or Israelitish 8) See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement there in the 5th century from which emanated most, if not all, of the papyrus documents edited in the C.I.S . Since the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance of this See also:

• PART

part of the' Corpus, more papyri have come to See also:

• LIGHT

light . One published by Euting 9 is. dated 411 B.C. and is of historical interest, eleven others,10 containing legal documents, mostly dated, were written between 471 and 411 B.C.; another (408 B.c.) is a See also:

• PETITION (Lat. for " seeking " or " praying ")

petition to the See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of Jerusalem." The fragments in the C.I.S. are in the same character and clearly belong to the same period .

The language continued to be used in Egypt even in Ptolemaic times, as shown by a papyrus 12 (accounts) and ostrakon 13 containing Greek names, and belonging, to See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge from the style of the writing, to the 3rd century B.C . The latest fragments 14 are of the 6th–8th century A.D., written in a fully developed square character . They are Jewish private letters, and do not prove anything as to the use of Aramaic in Egypt at that time . Nabataean inscriptions are very numerous . They are written in a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar, somewhat cursive character, derived from the square, and date from the 2nd century B.C . The earliest dated is of the year 40 B.C., the latest dated is of A.D . 95 . The Nabataean See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom proper had its centre at See also:

• PETRA (r)

Petra (= Sela in 2 Kings xiv . 7), which attained great importance as the See also:

• EMPORIUM (a Latin adaptation of the Gr. Eµabpuov, from f)

emporium on the trade route between Arabia and the Persian Gulf on the ' These have been collected by J . H . See also:

• STEVENSON, ADLA1 EWING (1835- )
• STEVENSON, ROBERT (1772-1850)
• STEVENSON, ROBERT LEWIS BALFOUR (1850-1894)

Stevenson, Babyl. and Assyr, . Contracts (New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, 1902) .

A more complete collection has been prepared by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor A . T . See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

Clay . ° For the literature see Kalinka, Tituli Lyciae, No . 152 (See also:

• VIENNA (Ger. Wien; Lat. Vindobona)
• VIENNA, CONGRESS OF (1814-1815)

Vienna, 1901) . 7 Repertoire d'epigr. See also:

• SEINE
• SEINE (Lat. Sequana)
• SEINE, or SEAN (O. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr. vaytivrl, a draw-net)

seine No . 438 . So Bacher in J . Q . R. xix . 441 . 9In Mean Acad. znscr .

I1' sec. xi . 297 . See also Rip. d'tpigr. sem., for some smaller fragments, Nos . 244-248 . See also:

• SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- )

Sayce and See also:

• COWLEY, ABRAHAM (1618-1667)
• COWLEY, HANNAH (1743-1809)
• COWLEY, HENRY RICHARD CHARLES WELLESLEY

Cowley, Aramaic Papyri (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1906) . " Sachau, " Drei See also:

• ARAM, EUGENE (17o4-17J9)

aram . Papyrusurkunden " Abh. d. kgl . Preuss . Akad . (Berlin, 1907) . 1E See P.S.B.A . (1907), p .

260 . 44 See Lidzbarski„ See also:

• EPHEMERIS (Greek for a " diary ")

Ephemeris, ii . 247.. y4 J.Q.R._ xvi . I- one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and Syria and Egypt on the other . The commercial activity of the See also:

• PEOPLE

people, however, was widely extended, and their monuments are found not only round Petra and in N . Arabia, but as far north as See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus, and even in See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, where there was a trading settlement at See also:

• PUTEOLI (mod. Pozzuoli, q.v.)

Puteoli . The inscriptions are mostly votive or sepulchral, and are often dated, but give little historical information except in so far as they See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix the See also:

• DATES

dates of Nabataean kings . A distinct subdivision of Nabataean is found in the Sinaitic See also:

• PENINSULA
• PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paene, almost, and insula, an island)

peninsula, chiefly in the See also:

• WADI

Wadi Firan and Wadi Mukattib, which See also:

• LAY

lay on the See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan route . The inscriptions are rudely scratched or punched on the rough rock, without any sort of See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, and some of them are accompanied by See also:

• RUDE, FRANCOIS (1784–1855)

rude drawings . A few only are dated, but, as shown by de Vogue in the C.I.S . (ii . 1, p .

353), they must all belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D . This accounts for the fact that already in the 6th century See also:

• COSMAS

Cosmas Indicopleustes has no correct See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of their origin, and ascribes them to the Israelites during their wanderings in the See also:

• WILDERNESS

wilderness .2 They were first correctly deciphered as Nabataean by See also:

• BEER

Beer in 1848, when they proved to consist chiefly of proper names (many of them of Arabic formation), accompanied by ejaculations or blessings . It is clear that they are not the See also:

• WORK

work of pilgrims either Jewish or See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian,' nor are they of a religious character . The frequent recurrence of certain names shows that only a few generations of a few families are represented, and these must have belonged to a small See also:

• BODY

body of See also:

• NABATAEANS

Nabataeans temporarily settled in the particular Wadis, no doubt for purposes connected with the caravan-See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic . The form of the Nabataean character in which they are written is interesting as being the probable progenitor of the Kufic Arabic alphabet . Another important trading centre was Tadmor or See also:

• PALMYRA

Palmyra in See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Syria . Numerous inscriptions found there, and hence called Palmyrene, were copied by See also:

• WADDINGTON, WILLIAM HENRY (1826–1894)

Waddington in 1861 and published by de Vogue in his great work Syrie Centrale (r868, c.), which is still the most extensive collection of them . The difficulties of exploration have hitherto prevented any further increase of the material, but much more would undoubtedly be found if excavation were possible . The texts are mostly sepulchral and dedicatory, some of them being accompanied by a Greek version . The language is a form of western Aramaic, and the character, which is derived from the Hebrew and Aramaic square, is closely related to the See also:

• SYRIAC

Syriac estrangelo alphabet . The inscriptions are mostly dated, and belong to the period between 9 B.C. and A.D . 271 .

The most important is the tariff of taxes on imports, dated A.D . 137 . Nearly all were found on the See also:

• SURFACE

surface at or round Palmyra and remain in situ . Of the very few in other places, one (with a Latin version) was found at South See also:

• SHIELDS, JAMES (181b-1879)

Shields, the tombstone of See also:

• REGINA

Regina See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty et conjux of a native of Palmyra . Syriac inscriptions are few . The earliest is that on the See also:

• SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. vapsorg yos, literally " flesh-eating," from vapt, flesh, ¢ayeiv, to eat)

sarcophagus of See also:

• QUEEN
• QUEEN (O.E. cwen, wife, related to "quean," O.E. cwene, a hussy; cf. Gr. yvvi7: from root gan-, to produce; cf. genus, " kin," &c.)

Queen Saddan (in the Hebrew version, Sadda), perhaps of about A.D . 40, found at Jerusalem . Others were found by Sachau ' at See also:

• EDESSA
• EDESSA (mod. , Vodena)

Edessa, of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and by Pognon . 5 2 . South Semitic.—The South Semitic class of inscriptions comprises the Minaean, Sabaean, Himyaritic and Lihyanitic in South Arabia, the Thamudic and Safaitic in the north and the Abyssinian . A great deal of material has been collected by See also:

• HALEVY, JACQUES FRANCOIS FROMENTAL ELIE (1799-. 1862)
• HALEVY, LUDOVIC (1834-1908)

Halevy, See also:

• GLASER, CHRISTOPHER

Glaser and Euting, and much valuable work has been done by them and by D . H .

See also:

• MULLER, FERDINAND VON, BARON (1825–1896)
• MULLER, FRIEDRICH (1749-1825)
• MULLER, GEORGE (1805-1898)
• MULLER, JOHANNES PETER (18o1-1858)
• MULLER, JOHANNES VON (1752-1809)
• MULLER, JULIUS (18oi-1878)
• MULLER, KARL OTFRIED (1797-1840)
• MULLER, LUCIAN (1836-1898)
• MULLER, WILHELM (1794-1827)
• MULLER, WILLIAM JAMES (1812-1845)

Muller, Hommel and Littmann . Many of the texts, however, are still unpublished and the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest is not very accessible (except so far as it has appeared in the C.I.S.), so that South Semitic has been less widely studied than North Semitic . The successive kingdoms of South Arabia (See also:

• YEMEN (Yaman)

Yemen) were essentially commercial . Their See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country was the natural intermediary ' ed . E . O . Winstedt (Cambr . 19o9), p . 154 . 2 A view revived by C . See also:

• FORSTER, FRANCOIS (179o-,872)
• FORSTER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1791-1868)
• FORSTER, JOHANN GEORG ADAM (1754-1794)
• FORSTER, JOHN (1812-1876)
• FORSTER, JOHN COOPER (1823-1886)
• FORSTER, WILLIAM EDWARD (1818-1886)

Forster, even after Beer, in The Israelitish Authorship of the Sinaitic Inscriptions (London, 1856) and other See also:

• WORKS

works . ' The See also:

• CROSS

cross and other Christian symbols often found with the inscriptions have been added later by pilgrims.—C.I.S. ii .

1, p . 352 . ' Reise in Syrien (Leipzig, 1883) . 5 Inscriptions serei de la Syrie, &c. i . (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1907).between See also:

• ASIA

Asia (See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India), Africa and Syria, and this position, combined with its natural fertility, made the south far more prosperous than the north . In language, the two most important peoples, the Minaeans and Sabaeans, differ only dialectically, both writing forms of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Arabic . The Minaean capital was at Main, about 300 M . N. of See also:

• ADEN

Aden and 200 M. from the west See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast . Here and in the neighbourhood numerous inscriptions were found, as well as in the north at al-'01a.6 Their See also:

• CHRONOLOGY (Gr. xpovo?oyfa, computation of time, xp6vos)

chronology is much disputed . D . H . Muller makes the Minaean See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power contemporary with the Sabaean, but Glaser (with whom Hommel and D .

S . Margoliouth agree) contends that the Sabaeans followed the Minaeans, whom they conquered in 820 B.C . Mention is made in a cuneiform text (See also:

• ANNALS (Annales, from annus, a year)

Annals of See also:

• SARGON

Sargon, 715 B.C.) of Ithamar the Sabaean, who must be identical with one (it is not certain which) of the kings of that name mentioned in the Sabaean inscriptions . Their capital was Marib, a little south of Main, and here they appear to have flourished for about a thousand years . In the 1st century A.D., with the See also:

• ESTABLISHMENT (0. Fr. establissement, Fr. etablissement, late Norm. Fr. establishement, from O. Fr. establir, Fr. etablir, Lat. stabilire, to make stable)

establishment of the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman power in the north, their trade, and consequently their prosperity, began to decline . The See also:

• RIVAL

rival kingdom of the Himyarites, with its capital at Zafar, then See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose to importance, and this in turn was conquered by the Abyssinians in the 6th century A.D . With the spread of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam the old Arabic language was supplanted by the northern dialects from which classical Arabic was developed . A peculiarity of the South Arabian inscriptions is that many of them are engraved on bronze tablets . Besides being historically important, they are of great value for the study of early Semitic See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . The gods most often named in Sabaean are `Athtar Wadd and Nakrah, the first being the male counterpart of the Syrian Ashtoreth . The term denoting the priests and priestesses who are devoted to the temple-service is identified by Hommel and others with the Hebrew " Levite." Closely connected wth South Arabia is See also:

• ABYSSINIA (officially ETHIOPIA)

Abyssinia . Indeed a considerable number of Sabaean inscriptions have been found at Yeha and Aksum, showing that merchants from Arabia must at some time have formed settlements there .

D . H . Muller 7 thinks that some of these belong to the earliest and others to the latest period of Sabaean power . The inscriptions hitherto found in Ethiopic (the alphabet of which is derived from the Sabaean) date from the 4th century A.D. onward . They are few in number, but long and of great historical importance . There can be no doubt that exploration, if it were possible, would bring many more to light . From time to time emigrants from the southern tribes settled in the north of Arabia . Mention has already been made of Minaean inscriptions found at al-'Ola, which is on the great See also:

• PILGRIM

pilgrim road, about 70 M. south of Taima . In recent years a number of others has been collected belonging to the people of Libyan and dating from about A.D . 250 . Nearly related to the Lihyanitic are the Thamudic (so called from the tribe of the Thamud mentioned in them), and the Safaitic, both of which, though found in the north, belong in character to south Arabia and no doubt owe their origin to emigrants from the south . The Thamudic inscriptions, collected by Euting (called Proto-Arabian by Halevy),s are carelessly scrawled graffiti very like those of the See also:

• SINAI

Sinai peninsula .

Their date is uncertain, but they cannot be much earlier than the Safaitic, which resemble them in most respects . These last are called after the mountainous See also:

• DISTRICT

district about 20 M . S.E. of Damascus . The inscriptions are, however, found not in See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount See also:

• SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895)

Sala itself but in the See also:

• DESERT

desert of al-Harrah to the west and south and in the fertile See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain .of ar-Ruhbah to the east . They were first deciphered by Halevy,° whose work has been carried on and completed by Littmann.10 Their date is again uncertain, since graffiti of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind give very few facts from which dates can be deduced . Littmann thinks that one of his inscriptions refers to See also:

• TRAJAN [MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS] (A. D. 53-117)

Trajan's See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of A.D . 106, ° J . H . Mordtmann, Beitr. zur Minaischen Epigraphik," in Semitistische Studien, 12 (See also:

• WEIMAR

Weimar, 1897) . ' In See also:

• BENT
• BENT (E1. BENI)
• BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852–1897)

Bent's Sacred See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City of the Ethiopians (London, 1893) . 8 Revue semitigue (1901) . ° Journ .

As. x., xvii., xix . 1° Zur Entzifferung d . Safd-Inschr . (Leipzig, 1901) . and that they all belong to the first three centuries . They are found together with the earlier Greek and Latin graffiti of Roman soldiers and with later Moslem remarks in Kufic . Many of them are not yet published . BIBLIoGRAPHY—The best introductions are, for North Semitic, Lidzbarski's Handbuch d. nordsemitischen Epigraphik (Weimar, 1898) ; and G . A . See also:

• COOKE, GEORGE FREDERICK (1756–1811)
• COOKE, JAY (1821–1905)
• COOKE, ROSE TERRY (1827-1892)

Cooke's Text-book of North-Semitic Inscriptions (Oxford, 1903) ; for South Semitic, Hommel's Siid-arabische Chrestomathie (See also:

• MUNICH (Ger. Munchen)

Munich, 1893) ; Alphabets and facsimiles in Berger, Histoire de l'ecriture, 2nd ed . (Paris, 1892) . The parts of the Corpus Inscr .

Sem. published up to 1910 are: pars i., torn. i., and torn. ii., fascc . 1-3, 1881–1908 (Phoenician); pars ii., torn. i., 1889–1902 (Aramaic with Nabataean), torn. ii., fasc. i., 1907 (Sinaitic) ; pars iv., tom i., fascc . 1-4, 1889–1908 (Himyaritic, including Minaean and Sabaean) . In all these parts a full bibliography is given . For Palmyrene see de Vogue's Syrie Centrale (Paris, 1868–1877) . Works on See also:

• SPECIAL

special departments of the subject have already been mentioned in the notes . (A . CY.) II . INDIAN INSCRIPTIONS ceased to exist through the See also:

• LAPSE (Lat. lapses, a slip or departure)

lapse of time, the dying out of families of See also:

• ORIGINAL

original holders, rights of See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest, and the many changes of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government that have taken place: but others have been found buried in See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, and hidden in the walls and See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations of buildings . The plates on which these inscriptions were incised vary greatly in the number of the leaves, in the See also:

• SIZE

size and shape of them, and in the arrangement of the records on them; partly, of course, according to the lengths of individual records, but also according to particular customs and fashions prevalent in different parts of the country and in different periods of time . In some cases a single See also:

• PLATE

plate was used; and it was inscribed sometimes on only one side of it, sometimes on both . More often, however, more plates than one were used, and were connected together by soldered rings; and the number ranges up to as many as See also:

• THIRTY

thirty-one in the case of a See also:

• CHARTER (Lat. charta, carta, from Gr. Xap-rns, originally for papyrus, material for writing, thence transferred to paper and from this material to the document, in O. Eng. boc, book)

charter issued by the Chola king Rajendra Chola I. in the period A.D .

1011 to 1037 . It was customary that such of the records on See also:

• COPPER (symbol Cu, atomic weight 63.1, H=1, or 63.6, O = 16)

copper as were donative charters should be authenticated . This was sometimes done by incising on the plates what purports to be more or less an autograph See also:

• SIGNATURE (through Fr. from Lat. signature, signare, to sign, signum, mark, token, sign)

signature of the king or See also:

• PRINCE
• PRINCE (Lat. princeps, from primus capio, " I am the first to take "; Ital. principe, Fr. prince)

prince from whom a charter emanated . More usually, however, it was effected by attaching a copper or bronze See also:

• REPRODUCTION

reproduction of the royal See also:

• SEAL
• SEAL, FUR
• SEAL, HAIR

seal to the See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring or to one of the rings on which the plates were strung; and this practice has given us another large and highly interesting series of Indian seals, some of them of an extremely elaborate nature . In this class of records we have a real curiosity in a charter issued in A.D . 1272 by Ramachandra, one of the Yadava kings of Devagiri: this See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record is on three plates, each measuring about 1 ft . 3 in. in width by r ft . 81 in. in height, which are so massive as to weigh 59 lb . 2 oz.; and the weight of the ring on which they were strung, and of an See also:

• IMAGE (Lat. imago, perhaps from the same root as imitari, copy, imitate)

image of Garuela which was secured to it by another ring, is 11 lb . 12 oz.: thus, the See also:

• TOTAL

total weight of this See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title-See also:

• DEED (in O. Eng. dead, from the stem of the verb " to do ")

deed, which conveyed a See also:

• VILLAGE

village to fifty-seven Brahmans, is no less than 70 lb . 14 oz.; appreciably more than See also:

• HALF

half a hundredweight . Amongst substances other than metal we can cite only one instance in which crystal was used; this material was evidently found too hard for any general use in the inscriptional See also:

• LINE

line: the solitary instance is the case of a short record found in the remains of a Buddhist stupa or relic-See also:

• MOUND

mound at Bhattiprolu in the See also:

• KISTNA (or KRISHNA)
• KISTNA, or KRISHNA

Kistna district, See also:

• MADRAS

Madras .

In various parts of India there are found in large See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers small tablets of clay prepared from stamps, sometimes baked into terra=See also:

• COTTA
• COTTA, BERNHARD VON (1808—1879)
• COTTA, GAIUS AURELIUS (c. 124—73 B.c.)

cotta, sometimes See also:

• LEFT

left to harden naturally . See also:

• OBJECTS