See also:

• INTENDANT (from Lat. intendens, pres. part. of intendere, to apply the mind to, to watch over; cf. " superintendent ")

INTENDANT (from See also:

• LAT

Lat. intendens, pres. See also:

• PART

part. of intendere, to apply the mind to, to See also:

• WATCH (in O. Eng. wcecce, a keeping guard or watching, from wacian, to guard, watch, wacan, to wake)

watch over; cf. " See also:

• SUPERINTENDENT

superintendent ")  , the name used in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France to designate a functionary invested by the See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king with an important and durable See also:

• COMMISSION (from Lat. commissio, committere)

commission .1 As early as the 14th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of intendentes or superinteridentes financiarum was given to the commissaries appointed by the king to See also:

• LEVY (Fr. levee, from lever, Lat. levare, to lift, raise)
• LEVY, AMY (1861–1889)
• LEVY, AUGUSTE MICHEL (1844– )

levy the aides, or temporary subsidies . In the 16th century See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis I. created the intendants See also:

• DES

des finances, permanent functionaries who formed the central and superidr 1 In See also:

• GERMANY
• GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland)

Germany the title See also:

• INTENDANT (from Lat. intendens, pres. part. of intendere, to apply the mind to, to watch over; cf. " superintendent ")

Intendant is applied to the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of public institutions, more particularly to the high officials in See also:

• CHARGE
• CHARGE (through the Fr. from the Late Lat. carricare, to load in a carrus or wagon; cf. " cargo ")

charge of See also:

• COURT
• COURT (from the O. Fr. court, Late Lat. cortis, curtis, a popular form of class. Lat. cohors, gen. cohortis; the mod. Fr. form tour is due to the influence of the Lat. curia, the word used in medieval documents to translate " court " in the feudal sense)
• COURT, ANTOINE (1696-176o)

court theatres, royal gardens, palaces and the like . The director of certain civic theatres is now also sometimes styled Intendant . The title Generalintendant implies the same See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official duties, but higher See also:

• RANK (O.Fr. rant or rent, mod. rang, generally connected with the O.E. and O.H.G. bring, a ring)

rank . In the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army the Intendantur corresponds to the See also:

• BRITISH

British quartermaster-See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general's and See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial departments of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

Office, the See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French intendance militaire . Subordinate to these are the intendances (Intendanturen) under general See also:

• OFFICERS

officers commanding, the heads of which are in Germany called Korpsintendanten, and in France intendants-generaux, intendants militaires, &c . (see ARMY, § 58) . needed; and such a criterion is not easy to formulate or to apply . If we See also:

• INSTITUTE (from Lat. instituere, to establish or set up)

institute inquiries with a view to ascertaining how the conceptual See also:

• FACTOR (from Lat. facere, to make or do)

factor originates, it appears to be the result of See also:

• ANALYSIS (Gr. avci and Meta, to break up into parts)

analysis and See also:

• ABSTRACTION (Lat. abs and trahere)

abstraction, and to be reached by a See also:

• PROCESS

process of comparison which becomes intentional and deliberate . If, for example, in educational See also:

• PROCEDURE (Fr. procedure, from Lat. procedere, to go for-ward)

procedure, we seek to assist See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children in forming concepts of See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, shape and material, we See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place before them a number of See also:

• OBJECTS

objects, some See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round, some square, some triangular; some red, some yellow, some See also:

• BLUE (common in different forms to most European languages)

blue; some made of See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper, some of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood, some of See also:

• FLANNEL

flannel . Any given See also:

• OBJECT

object is both red and square and made of flannel, blue and round and made of wood, and so on . We See also:

• TEACH [THATCH OR THACH], EDWARD (d. 1718)

teach the See also:

• CHILD
• CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES (1825-1896)
• CHILD, L
• CHILD, LYDIA MARIA (1802-1880)
• CHILD, SIR FRANCIS (1642-1713)
• CHILD, SIR JOHN (d. 1690)
• CHILD, SIR JOSIAH (163o - 1699)

child to See also:

• GROUP

group the objects, to put all the blues, yellows and reds together irrespective of shape or material; then all the rounds, squares and triangles together; then all which are made of like material .

We thus help the children to grasp that though shape, colour and material are combined in each object, yet for the immediate purpose in See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand one matters and the others do not See also:

• MATTER

matter . That which does matter is abstracted from the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest . The child has to analyse his experience and See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention on some given factor therein . He has to compare the objects intentionally, that is, for a definite end . He reaches, for example, the concept " blue" and realizes that the word may be applied to a number of particular objects differing in other respects, and that each is an example of what he understands by the word blue . Whether he could reach the concept without words is a question on which opinions differ . See also:

• LOCKE, GOTTFRIED CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1791–1855)
• LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704)
• LOCKE, MATTHEW (c. 1630-1677)

Locke held that animals are iracapable of the abstraction which is implied in such procedure . Dr Stout considers that are observation of their behaviour shows little if any animals See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of intentional comparison . And it is apen concoptu- to discussion whether they are able to analyse the ally in- situations opened up by their perceptual behaviour. telligent ? The matter cannot be fully considered here . It must suffice if enough has been said to show the nature of the distinction between perceptual and conceptual process . An example may, however, be given of the See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of observation which, since it was carefully planned and carried out, is of evidential value .

Dr See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

Hill's See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox terrier was " taught " to open the See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side See also:

• DOOR (corresponding to the Gr. Bbpa,. Lat. fores or valvae; the English word, with other forms common in allied languages, comes from the same Indo-European stem as the Gr. Obpa and Lat. fares)

door of a large See also:

• BOX
• BOX (Gr. irl or, Lat. buxus, box-wood; cf. 2r6Eir, a pyx)

box by lifting a projecting latch . When the door swung open he was never allowed to find anything in the box, but was given a piece of See also:

• BISCUIT (pronounced according to the old spelling " bisket," a Fr. form from Lat. bis, twice, and coctum, cooked, in reference to the original method of preparation; cf. Ital. biscotto, Sp. bizcocho, &c.)

biscuit from the hand . Then a warm chop-See also:

• BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German Bein)
• BONE, HENRY (1755-1834)

bone was put inside the box, which was placed in a courtyard so that the See also:

• DOG

dog would pass it when no one was near, though he could be watched from the window . Details of the terrier's behaviour are given by Dr Hill in Nature (lxvii . 558, See also:

• APRIL

April 1903) . The See also:

• NET

net result was that the dog failed to apply. at once his quite See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar experience of lifting the latch in the usual way . Here two situations were presented; first the box with See also:

• PEOPLE

people around and a piece of biscuit to be obtained from one of them by lifting the latch; secondly the box with no one near and a redolent chop-bone inside . To us it is obvious enough that the lifted latch is the See also:

• KEY
• KEY (in O. Eng. tang; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was kay, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in aeg; cf. daeg, day; clang
• KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens)
• KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888)
• KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875)

key to the development of both situations; we analyse them so as to get the essential factor which matters . The dog apparently did not do so . He seemingly was incapable of this modest amount of analysis and abstraction . We can now see more clearly what was meant by saying that See also:

• ROMANES, GEORGE JOHN (1848-1894)

Romanes' phrase (that intelligence " implies a conscious know- ledge of the relation between means employed and See also:

• AMBIGUITY (Fr. ambiguite, med. Lat. ambiguitas, from Lat. ambiguus, doubtful; ambi, both ways, agere, to drive)

Ambiguity of phrase ends attained ") is ambiguous . The dog which lifts "See also:

• CON

con- the latch of a See also:

• GATE

gate and goes out when the gate swings scions open undoubtedly employs means to reach an end; kn mowledge" ns .

a e he need not analytically think the means as conducive of to the end and the end as reached by the means; he need not conceive this relationship as exemplified in a number of particular cases; he need not cognize the universal as distinguished from the particulars . Perceptual experience, therefore, does not imply what Romanes states if his words are interpreted in terms of conception; it does, however, imply that the relation- Development of concept . See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration in financial matters . They took the place of the generaux des finances and the " treasurers of France," who became provincial functionaries in the various generalites . The intendants des finances existed until the end of the ancien regime; they were at first under the authority of the surintendant, and subsequently under that of the controleur general des finances . The intendants des provinces date from the last See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years of the 16th century . They were commissaries sent by the king with wide See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers to restore See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in the provinces after the See also:

• CIVIL

civil See also:

• WARS

wars . Their functions were at first extraordinary and temporary, but a few were retained as permanent See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state officials, and in course of See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time they came to be fairly generally distributed over the whole See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom . The existing territorial divisions were not disturbed, each intendant being placed over a generalite, See also:

• SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Savus)

save in some cases where slight modifications were necessary for administrative purposes . In "their functions, however, there is another See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element worthy of See also:

• NOTICE

notice . In the 13th and 14th centuries the See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy had organized a See also:

• SPECIES

species of inspection (chevauchee) over the provincial functionaries, which was performed by the maitres des requetes, and this the reform ordinances of the 16th century sought to revive . This inspectorate passed to the intendant, who became the See also:

• RESIDENT

resident See also:

• LOCAL

local inspector and supervisor of all the other functionaries in his See also:

• DISTRICT

district; its connexion with the old chevauchee is plainly shown by the fact that the intendants were almost invariably selected from the maitres des requetes .

The early intendants had naturally been largely concerned with the troops; eventually See also:

• SPECIAL

special military intendants (the only ones that exist in See also:

• MODERN

modern French See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law) were created, but the intendants des provinces retained certain military duties, notably those See also:

• RELATING

relating to the See also:

• HOUSING

housing of the troops . The early intendants were called indifferently intendants de See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice or intendants de finances, their full official title being intendants de justice, See also:

• POLICE (Fr. police, government, civil administration, a police force, Gr. sroXumeia, constitution, condition of a state, roars, city, state)

police et finances, et commissaires, departis dans See also:

• LES

les generalites du royaume pour l'See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution des ordres de Sa Majeste . This title shows the wide range of their duties, the word " police" in this connexion connoting general administration . Not being officers of the king, but merely commissaries, they could always be recalled, and their powers were fixed by the commission they received from the king . As their functions became pre-eminently administrative the See also:

• LAWS

laws of the 17th and 18th centuries referred many questions to their decision, and, in this respect, their powers were determined by law . They became the See also:

• DIRECT

direct general representatives of the king in each generalite, with authority over the other officials, whom they were empowered to censure, suspend or sometimes even replace . They were in See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant See also:

• TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teutonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw)

touch with the king's See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council, with which they were connected by their See also:

• ORIGINAL

original rights as maitres des requetes . In the first See also:

• HALF

half of the 17th century they encountered some opposition from the See also:

• GOVERNORS

governors of provinces, who had formerly been the direct See also:

• POLITICAL

political representatives of the See also:

• CROWN

crown, and also from the parliaments, which traditionally intervened in the administration, especially by means of amts de reglement (decisions, from which there was no See also:

• APPEAL

appeal, regulating questions of procedure, civil law or See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom) . The intendants, however, were energetically supported, and so See also:

• COMPLETE

complete was their See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph that in the 18th century governors of provinces could not enter upon their duties without formal lettres de See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence . The intendants had wide powers in the See also:

• DRAWING

drawing by See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

lot of the See also:

• MILITIA (Fr. milice, Ger. Miliz, from Lat. miles, soldier, militia, military service)

militia and in the royal corvees for the making and repair of the high roads, and were largely concerned with the administration of the See also:

• TAILLE (from Fr. tailler, to cut or divide; late Lat. taliare, said to come from talia, talea)

taille, in which they effected useful reforms . They were the See also:

• SOLE (Solea)

sole administrators of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal direct and indirect imposts created in the second half of the 17th century and in the 18th century, and had full powers to See also:

• SETTLE
• SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648–1724)

settle disputes arising out of these taxes . Owing to the vast See also:

• SIZE

size of the districts allotted to the intendants (there were no more than thirty-two intendants in 1788), they often See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt the need of assistants .

As commissaries of the king, they could delegate their powers to sub-delegues, who were, however, not royal officials, but merely mandatories of the intendant . Decisions of the intendant could be tarried to the king's council, and those of the sub-delegue to the intendant . See See also:

• GABRIEL (Heb. SKns, man of God)

Gabriel See also:

• HANOTAUX, ALBERT AUGUSTE GABRIEL (1853– )

Hanotaux, Origines de l'institution des intendants des provinces (1884); D'See also:

• ARBOIS

Arbois de Jubainville, L'Administration des intendants d'apres les archives de l'See also:

• AUBE

Aube (188o) ; P . Ardascheff, Provintzalnaya administratsiya vo Frantsii ve poshednoyo porou starago poryadka: provintsialny Intendanty (St See also:

• PETERSBURG

Petersburg, 1900-1906) . (J . P .