See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)  , the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city of See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine . Letters found at Tell el-Amarna in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt, written by an See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early ruler of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, show that the name existed under the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form Urusalim, i.e . " City of Salim " or " City of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

Peace," many years before the Israelites under See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua entered See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan . The See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• HADRIAN (PUBLICS AELIUS HADRIANUS)

Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia Capitolina . The See also:

• ARABS

Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive of holiness, such as See also:

• BEIT, ALFRED (1853-1906)

Beit el Makdis and El Mulcaddis or briefly El Duds, i.e. the See also:

• SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place)

Sanctuary . Natural See also:

• TOPOGRAPHY
• TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. Toros, place, -partied', to write)

Topography.—Jerusalem is situated in 31 ° 47' N. and 35 ° 15' E., in the See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country of See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern Palestine, See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close to the See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed, at an See also:

• AVERAGE

average See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude of 2500 ft. above the Mediterranean, and 3800 ft. above the level of the Dead See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea . The city stands on a rocky See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, which projects southwards from the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main See also:

• LINE

line of hills . On the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge of the See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount of See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

Olives, which is See also:

• LOO (formerly called " Lanterloo," Fr. lanturlu, the refrain of a popular 17th-century song)

loo to 200 ft. higher, while the See also:

• WADI

Wadi Er Rababi See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds Jerusalem on the See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west and See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting the Valley of Kidron near the See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• POOL

pool of Siloam . Both valleys fall rapidly as they approach the point of junction, which lies at a See also:

• DEPTH

depth of more than 600 ft. below the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general valley of the plateau . The latter, which covers an See also:

• AREA

area of about woo acres, has at the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time a fairly See also:

• UNIFORM

uniform See also:

• SURFACE

surface and slopes gradually from the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to the south and east: Originally, however, its formation was very different, as it was intersected by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon by See also:

• JOSEPHUS, FLAVIUS (c. 37-C. 95?)

Josephus, which, starting from a point N.W. of the See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus See also:

• GATE

gate, followed a course first south-east and then west of south, and joined the two main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam . Another shorter valley began near the present Jaffa gate and, taking an easterly direction, joined the Tyropoeon; while a third See also:

• RAVINE

ravine passed across what is now the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• PART

part of the Haram enclosure and See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell into the valley of the Kidron . The exact form of these three interior valleys, which had an important See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence on the construction and See also:

• HISTORY

history of the city, is still imperfectly known, as they are to a See also:

• GREAT

great extent obliterated by vast accumulations of rubbish, which has filled them up in some places to a depth of more than loo ft .

Their approximate form was only arrived at by excavations made during the later years of the 19th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century . The limited knowledge which we possess of the See also:

• ORIGINAL

original features of the ground within the area of the city makes a reconstruction of the topographical history of the latter a difficult task; and, as a natural result, many irreconcilable theories have been suggested . The difficulty is increased by the fact that the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical descriptions given in the Old Testament the Apocrypha and the writings of Josephus are very See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short, and, having been written for those who were acquainted with the places, convey insufficient See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information to historians of the present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day, when the sites are so greatly altered . All that can be done is to form a continuous See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account in See also:

• ACCORD (from Fr. accorder, to agree)

accord with the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient histories, and with the original formation of the ground, so far as this has been identified by See also:

• MODERN

modern exploration . But the progress of exploration and excavation may render this subject to further modification . The See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological formation of the plateau consists of thin beds of hard silicious See also:

• CHALK

chalk, locally called masse, which overlie a thick See also:

• BED
• BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Bett, probably connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or in the same sense as a garden " bed ")

bed of soft See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, known by the name of meleke . Both descriptions of See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock yielded See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good material for See also:

• BUILDING

building; while in the soft meleke tanks, underground See also:

• CHAMBERS (the Fr. chambre, from Lat. camera, a room)
• CHAMBERS, EPHRAIM (d. 1740)
• CHAMBERS, GEORGE (1803-1840)
• CHAMBERS, ROBERT (18oz-1871)
• CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM (1726-1796)

chambers, tombs, &c., were easily excavated . In ancient times a See also:

• BROOK

brook flowed down the valley of the Kidron, and it is possible that a stream flowed also through the Tyropoeon valley . The only known See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring existing at present within the limits of the city is the " See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

fountain of the Virgin," on the western See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Kidron valley, but there may have been others which are now concealed by the accumulations of rubbish . Cisterns were also used for the storage of See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain See also:

• WATER

water, and aqueducts, of which the remains still exist (see AQUEDUCTS ad init.), were constructed for the See also:

• CONVEYANCE

conveyance of water from a distance . Speaking generally, it is probable that the water See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

supply of Jerusalem in ancient times was better than it is at present . History.—The early history of Jerusalem is very obscure .

The Tell el-Amarna letters show that, See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long before the invasion by Joshua, it was occupied by the Egyptians, and was probably a stronghold of considerable importance, as it formed a good strategical position in the hill country of southern Palestine . We do not know how the Egyptians were forced to abandon Jerusalem; but, at the time of- the Israelite See also:

• CONQUEST

conquest, it was undoubtedly in the hands of the Jebusites, the native inhabitants of the country . The exact position of the Jebusite city is unknown; some authorities locate it on the western hill, now known as See also:

• ZION, or SION (Heb. iiag, perhaps from runs " to be dry," nqs " to set up," or is " to protect "; Arabic analogies favour the meaning " hump," " summit of a ridge," and so " citadel ")

Zion; some on the eastern hill, afterwards occupied by the See also:

• TEMPLE
• TEMPLE, FREDERICK (1821-1902)
• TEMPLE, RICHARD
• TEMPLE, SIR RICHARD, BART
• TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, BART

Temple and the city of See also:

• DAVID
• DAVID (a Hebrew name meaning probably beloved 1)
• DAVID, FELICIEN (1810—1876)
• DAVID, GERARD [GHEERAERT DAVIT], (?=1523)
• DAVID, PIERRE JEAN (1789–1856)
• DAVID, ST (Dewi, Sant)

David; while others consider it was a See also:

• DOUBLE
• DOUBLE (from the Mid. Eng. duble, the form which gives the present pronunciation, through the Old Er. duble, from Lat. duplus, twice as much)

double See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, one part being on the western, and the other on the eastern hill, separated from one another by the Tyropoeon valley . The latter view appears to be the most probable, as, according to the Biblical accounts, Jerusalem was partly in See also:

• JUDAH

Judah and partly in See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin, the line of demarcation between the two tribes passing through the city . According to his theory, the part of Jerusalem known as Jebus was situated on the western hill, and the outlying fort of Zion on the eastern hill . The men of Judah and Benjamin did not succeed in getting full See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of the See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place, and the Jebusites still held it when David became See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel . Some years after his See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession David succeededafter some difficulty in taking Jerusalem . He established his royal city on the eastern hill close to the site of the Jebusite Zion, while Jebus, the See also:

• TOWN

town on the western side of the Tyropoeon valley, became the See also:

• CIVIL

civil city, of which See also:

• JOAB (Heb. " Yah [well] is a father ")

Joab, David's leading general, was appointed See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor . David surrounded the royal city with a See also:

• WALL (O. Eng. weal, weall, Mid. Eng. wal, wane, adapted from Lat. vallum, rampart; the original O. Eng. word for a wall was wag or tenth)
• WALL, RICHARD (1694-1778)

wall and built a citadel, probably on the site of the Jebusite fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town . North of the city of David, the king, acting under divine guidance, See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose a site for the Temple of See also:

• JEHOVAH (YAHWEH2)

Jehovah, which was erected with great magnificence by See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon . The actual site occupied by this building has given rise to much controversy, though all authorities are agreed that it must have stood on some part of the area now known as the Haram . See also:

• JAMES
• JAMES (Gr. 'IlrKw,l3or, the Heb. Ya`akob or Jacob)
• JAMES (JAMES FRANCIS EDWARD STUART) (1688-1766)
• JAMES, 2ND EARL OF DOUGLAS AND MAR(c. 1358–1388)
• JAMES, DAVID (1839-1893)
• JAMES, EPISTLE OF
• JAMES, GEORGE PAYNE RAINSFOP
• JAMES, HENRY (1843— )
• JAMES, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859)
• JAMES, THOMAS (c. 1573–1629)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (1842–1910)
• JAMES, WILLIAM (d. 1827)

James See also:

• FERGUSSON, JAMES (18o8-r886)
• FERGUSSON, ROBERT (1750-1774)
• FERGUSSON, SIR WILLIAM

Fergusson was of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner .

As, however, it was proved by the explorations of See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• CHARLES
• CHARLES (1270-1325)
• CHARLES (1421-1461)
• CHARLES (1525-1574)
• CHARLES (c. 1319-1364)
• CHARLES (Fr. Charles; Span. Carlos; Ital. Carlo; Ger. Karl; derived from O.H.G. Charal,latinized as Carolus, meaning originally " man ": cf. Mod.Ger., Kerl," fellow," A.S. ceorl, Mod. Eng. " churl ")
• CHARLES (KARL EITEL ZEPHYRIN LUDWIG; in Rum. CAROL)
• CHARLES [KARL ALEXANDER] (1712-1780)
• CHARLES, ELIZABETH (1828-1896)
• CHARLES, JACQUES ALEXANDRE CESAR (1746-1823)
• CHARLES, THOMAS (1755-1814)

Charles See also:

• WARREN
• WARREN, GOUVERNEUR KEMBLE (183o-1882)
• WARREN, JOSEPH (1741—1775)
• WARREN, MERCY (1728—1814)
• WARREN, MINTON (1850-1907)
• WARREN, SAMUEL (1807-1877)
• WARREN, SIR JOHN BORLASE, BART
• WARREN, WILLIAM (1812-1888)

Warren in 1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this corner, and that the See also:

• FOUNDATIONS

foundations must have been of enormous depth, Fergusson's theory must be regarded as untenable (see also See also:

• SEPULCHRE, CANONS REGULAR OF THE HOLY
• SEPULCHRE, EASTER
• SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY

SEPULCHRE, See also:

• HOLY

HoLY) . On the whole it is most likely that the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same spot as is now occupied by the See also:

• DOME (Lat domus, house; Ital. duomo, cathedral)

Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the See also:

• MOSQUE (through Fr. mosquie; Span. mezquila, from Arab. masjid, sajada, to adore)

Mosque of See also:

• OMAR (c. 581-644)

Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the ground, it is possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred chamber of the Temple, stood over the rock which is still regarded with veneration by the Mahommedans . Solomon greatly strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and was probably the builder of the line of See also:

• DEFENCE
• DEFENCE (Lat. defendere, to defend)

defence, called by Josephus the first or old wall, which See also:

• UNITED

united the cities on the eastern and western hills . The See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom reached its highest point of importance during the reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his See also:

• DEATH

death, it was broken up by the See also:

• REBELLION

rebellion of See also:

• JEROBOAM (Heb. ydrob`dm, apparently " Am ['the clan,' here perhaps a divine name] contends "; LXX. iepof3oaµ)

Jeroboam, who founded the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate kingdom of Israel with its See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital at See also:

• SHECHEM (mod. Nablus)

Shechem . Two tribes only, Judah and Benjamin, with the descendants of See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi, remained faithful to See also:

• REHOBOAM (Heb. re)zab`am, probably " the clan is en-'arged," see Ecclus. xlvii. 23, although on the analogy of Rehabiah and Bab. ra'bi-ilu, `Am may represent some god; Septuagint reads po(3oa,u)

Rehoboam, the son of Solomon . Jerusalem thus lost much of its importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to Shishak, king of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches which had been accumulated by Solomon . The history of Jerusalem during the succeeding three centuries consists for the most part of a See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession of See also:

• WARS

wars against the kingdom of Israel, the Moabites and the Syrians . See also:

• JOASH, or JEHOASH (Heb. " Yahweh is strong, or bath given ")

Joash, king of Israel, captured the city from Amaziah, king of Judah, and destroyed part of the fortifications, but these were rebuilt by See also:

• UZZIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] is [my] strength ")

Uzziah, the son of Amaziah, who did much to restore the city to its original prosperity . In the reign of See also:

• HEZEKIAH (Heb. for " [my] strength is [of] Yah ")

Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became tributary to the Assyrians, who attempted the See also:

• CAPTURE (from Lat. capere, to take; Fr. prise maritime; Ger. Wegnahme)

capture of Jerusalem . Hezekiah improved the defences and arranged for a good water supply, preparatory to the See also:

• SIEGE (0. Fr. sege, siege, mod. siege, seat, ultimately from sedere, to sit, cf. Class. Lat. obsidium, a siege)

siege by See also:

• SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has increased the brethren ")

Sennacherib, the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian general . The siege failed and the Assyrians retired . Some years later See also:

• SYRIA

Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who reduced Judah to the position of a tributary See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state .

In the reign of See also:

• ZEDEKIAH (Hebrew for " righteousness of Yah[weh] ")

Zedekiah, the last of the line of See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings, Jerusalem was captured by See also:

• NEBUCHADREZZAR, or NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nebuchadrezzar, king of See also:

• BABYLON (mod. Hillah)

Babylon, who pillaged the city, destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

JEws, § 17) . A number of the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal inhabitants were carried See also:

• CAPTIVE (from Lat. capere, to take)

captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position of an insignificant town . Nebuchadrezzar placed in the city a See also:

• GARRISON
• GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879)

garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the city of David was See also:

• LEFT

left more or less desolate . We have no information regarding Jerusalem during the See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the captivity, but fortunately See also:

• NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild the defences about 445 B.C., has given a fairly clear description of the line of the wall which enables us to obtain, a good See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of the extent of the city at this period . The Temple had already been partially rebuilt by Zedekiah and his companions, but on a See also:

• SCALE
• SCALE (1) A

scale far inferior to the magnificent building of King Solomon, and Nehemiah devoted his See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the reconstruction of the walls . Before beginning the See also:

• WORK

work, he made a preliminary See also:

• RECONNAISSANCE (from Fr. reconnaitre, to recognize, Lat. recognoscere)

reconnaissance of the fortifications on the south of the town from the Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. corner, to the pool of Siloam and valley of the Kidron . He then allotted the reconstruction of wall and See also:

• GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806)

gates to different parties of workmen, and his narrative describes the portion of wall upon which each of these was employed.' It is clear from his account that the lines of fortifications included both the eastern and western hills . North of the Temple enclosure there was a gate, known as the See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

Sheep Gate, which must have opened into the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near what is now the north side of the Haram enclosure, but considerably south of the present north wall of the latter . To the west of the Sheep Gate there were two important towers in the wall, called respectively Meah and Hananeel . The See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower Hananeel is specially worthy of See also:

• NOTICE

notice as it stood N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the basis of the citadel built by See also:

• SIMON, ABRAHAM (1622-1692)
• SIMON, JULES FRANCOIS (1814–1896)
• SIMON, RICHARD (1638–1712)
• SIMON, SIR JOHN (1816–1904)
• SIMON, THOMAS (c. 1623-1665)

Simon Maccabaeus, which again was succeeded by the fortress of Antonia, constructed by See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod the Great, and one of the most important positions at the time of the siege by See also:

• TITUS
• TITUS, FLAVIUS SABINUS VESPASIANUS
• TITUS, THE EPISTLE TO

Titus . At or near the tower Hananeel the wall turned south along the east side of the Tyropoeon valley, and then again westward, See also:

• CROSSING

crossing the valley at a point probably near the remarkable construction known as See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson's See also:

• ARCH
• ARCH, JOSEPH (1826– )

arch . A gate in the valley, known as the See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish Gate, opened on a road which, leading from the north, went down the Tyropoeon valley to the southern part of the city .

West-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward of this gate the wall followed the south side of the valley which joined the Tyropoeon from the west as far as the north-western corner of the city at the site of the present Jaffa Gate and the so-called tower of David . In this part of the wall there were apparently two gates facing north, i.e. the Old Gate and the Gate of See also:

• EPHRAIM

Ephraim, 40o cubits from the corner.' At the corner stood the See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence of the Babylonian governor, near the site upon which King Herod afterwards built his magnificent See also:

• PALACE (Lat. Palatium, the name given by Augustus to his residence on the Palatine Hill)

palace . From the corner at the governor's See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house, the wall went in a southerly direction and turned south-east to the Valley Gate, remains of which were discovered by F . J . See also:

• BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON (1833– )

Bliss and fully described in his Excavations in Jerusalem in 1894-1897 . From the Valley Gate the wall took an easterly course for a distance of 'Goo cubits to the Dung Gate, near which on the east was the Fountain Gate, not far from the lower pool of Siloam . Here was the most southerly point of Jerusalem, and the wall turning hence to the north followed the west side of the valley of the Kidron, enclosing the city of David and the Temple enclosure, and finally turning west at some point near the site of the See also:

• GOLDEN

Golden Gate joined the wall, already described, at the Sheep Gate . Nehemiah mentions a number of places on the eastern hill, including the See also:

• TOMB (Gr. Tuµ/3a, Tuµ(3os, probably allied to Lat. tumulus, literally a swelling, tumere, to swell)

tomb of David, the positions of which cannot with our present knowledge be fixed with any certainty . After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah, a considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know practically nothing of its history for more than a century until, in 332 B.C., See also:

• ALEXANDER
• ALEXANDER (1461-1506)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OF BATTENBERG) (1857-1893)
• ALEXANDER (ALEXANDER OsxENOVici) (1876-1903)
• ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD (1772—1851)
• ALEXANDER, FRANCIS (1800—1881)
• ALEXANDER, GEORGE (1858— )
• ALEXANDER, JOHN WHITE (1856- )
• ALEXANDER, JOSEPH ADDISON (18o9—186o)
• ALEXANDER, SIR JAMES EDWARD (1803—1885)
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM (1824— )
• ALEXANDER, WILLIAM LINDSAY (1808—1884)

Alexander the Great conquered Syria . The gates of Jerusalem were opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful occupation . But his successors did not See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act with similar leniency; when the city was captured by See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve years later, the fortifications were partially demolished and apparently not again restored until the period of the high See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest Simon II., who repaired the defences and also the Temple buildings . In 168 B.C .

See also:

• ANTIOCHUS

Antiochus Epiphanes captured Jerusalem, destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the captivity . He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the town and placed in it a strong garrison of Greeks . The position of the Acra is doubtful, but it appears most probable that it stood on the eastern hill between the Temple and the city of David, both of which it commanded . Some writers place it north of the Temple on the site afterwards occupied by the fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in accord with the descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the See also:

• MACCABEES
• MACCABEES, BOOKS OF

Maccabees, which are quite consistent with each other . Other writers again have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the hill upon which the See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point was probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, and is at too great a distance from the Temple, it can hardly be accepted . But the site which has been already indicated at the N.E. corner of the present Mosque el Aksa meets the accounts of the ancient authorities better than any other . At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an enormous under-ground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may possibly have been the source of water supply for the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek garrison . The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded in capturing Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get 'The sites shown on the See also:

• PLAN
• PLAN (from Lat. planes, flat)

plan are tentative, and cannot be regarded as certain; see Nehemiah ii . 12-15, iii . 1-32, xii . 37-39 . 'See 2 Kings xiv .

13.possession of the Acra, which caused much trouble to the Jews, who erected a wall between it and the Temple, and another wall to cut it off from the city . The Greeks held out for a consider-able time, but had finally to surrender, probably from want of See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra and cut down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be higher than the Temple, and that there should be no separation between the latter and the city . Simon then constructed a new citadel, north of the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and established in See also:

• JUDAEA

Judaea the Asmonean See also:

• DYNASTY (Gr. &vvaareta, sovereignty, the position of a hevnori7r, lord, ruler, from SuvaaBay to be able, Suvaµas, power)

dynasty, which lasted for nearly a century, when the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common-wealth)

republic began to make its influence See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in Syria . In 65 B.C . Jerusalem was captured by See also:

• POMPEY

Pompey after a difficult siege . The Asmonean dynasty lasted a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the Great, with the aid of the See also:

• ROMANS
• ROMANS, EPISTLE TO THE

Romans, took possession of Jerusalem and became the first king of the Idumaean dynasty . Herod again raised the city to the position of an important capital, restoring the fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its foundations . He also built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W. of the Temple, on the site of the citadel of the Asmoneans, and constructed a magnificent palace for himself on the western hill, defended by three great towers, which he named Mariamne, Hippicus and Phasaelus . At some period between the time of the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or See also:

• OUTER

outer wall had been built outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible to See also:

• FIX, THEODORE (180o-1846)

fix an accurate date to this line of defence, as the references to it in Josephus are obscure . Herod adorned the town with other buildings and constructed a See also:

• THEATRE (BEarpov, " a place for seeing," from OeacOae)

theatre and gymnasium . He doubled the area of the enclosure See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the Temple, and there can be little doubt that a great part of the walls of the Haram area date from the time of Herod, while probably the tower of David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is on the same See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation as one of the towers adjoining his palace . See also:

• ARCHELAUS

Archelaus, Herod's successor, had far less authority than Herod, and the real See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government at Jerusalem was assumed by the Roman procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius See also:

• PILATE, PONTIUS

Pilate, Jesus See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ was condemned to death and crucified outside Jerusalem .

The places of his See also:

• EXECUTION (from Lat. ex-sequor, exsecutus, follow or carry out)

execution and See also:

• BURIAL

burial are not certainly known (see SEPUT.CHRE, HoLY) . Herod See also:

• AGRIPPA
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, I
• AGRIPPA, HEROD, II
• AGRIPPA, MARCUS VIPSANIUS

Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, built a third or outer wall on the north side of Jerusalem in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to enclose and defend the buildings which had gradually been constructed outside the old fortifications . The exact line of this third wall is not known with certainty, but it probably followed approximately the same line as the existing north wall of Jerusalem . Some writers have considered that it extended a considerable distance farther to the north, but of this there is no See also:

• PROOF (in M. Eng. preove, proeve, preve, &°c., from O. Fr . prueve, proeve, &c., mod. preuve, Late. Lat. proba, probate, to prove, to test the goodness of anything, probus, good)

proof, and no remains have as yet been found which would support the opinion . The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a See also:

• GRAND

grand scale, but its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that it was not completed at the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus . The writings of Josephus give a good idea of the fortifications and buildings of Jerusalem at the time, of the siege, and his accurate See also:

• PERSONAL

personal knowledge makes his account worthy of the most careful perusal . He explains clearly how Titus, beginning his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall, then the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple, and the upper city . After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple to be demolished and the fortifications to be levelled, with the exception of the three great towers at Herod's palace . It is, however, uncertain how far the order was carried out, and it is probable that the outer walls of the Temple enclosure were left partially See also:

• STANDING

standing and that the defences on the west and south of the city were not completely levelled . When Titus and his See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army withdrew from Jerusalem, the loth See also:

• LEGION (Lat. legio)

legion was left as a permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp for their occupation was established on the western hill . We have no account of the See also:

• SIZE

size or position of this camp, but a See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of the site, and a comparison with other Roman camps in various parts of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, make it probable that it occupied an area of about 50 acres, extending over what is now known as the Armenian See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the town, and that it was bounded on the north by the old or first wall, on the west also by the old wall, on the south by a line of defence somewhat in the same position as the present ,south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on the east by an entrenchment See also:

• RUNNING

running north and south parallel to the existing thoroughfare known as David See also:

• STREET
• STREET, GEORGE EDMUND (1824-1881)

Street . For sixty years the Roman garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but in 132 the Jews See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose in revolt under the leadership of See also:

• BAR
• BAR (0. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown)
• BAR, CONFEDERATION OF
• BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1538-1606)
• BAR, THE

Bar-Cochebas or Barcochba, and took possession of Jerusalem .

After a severe struggle, the revolt was suppressed by the Roman general, See also:

• JULIUS

Julius See also:

• SEVERUS
• SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 363–c. 425)

Severus, and Jerusalem was recaptured and again destroyed . According to some writers, this devastation was even more See also:

• COMPLETE

complete than after the siege by Titus . About 130 the emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a Roman See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony . The new city was called Aelia Capitolina . The exact size of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as the present north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern part of the western hill . A temple dedicated to See also:

• JUPITER

Jupiter Capitol-inns was erected on the site of the Temple, and other buildings were constructed, known as the Theatre, the Demosia, the Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra . The Jews were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were freely admitted . The history of Jerusalem during the period between the foundation of the city of Aelia by the emperor Hadrian and the accession of See also:

• CONSTANTINE

Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no important See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change appears to have been made in the size or fortifications of the city, which continued as a Roman colony . In 326 Constantine, after his See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion to See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, issued orders to the See also:

• BISHOP (A.S. bisceop, from Lat. episcopus, Gr. irio-Korros, " overlooker " or " overseer ")
• BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904)
• BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855)

bishop Macarius to recover the site of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in which his See also:

• BODY

body was laid (see SEPULCHRE, HoLY) . After the holy sites had been deter-See also:

• MINED

mined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over the place where the See also:

• CROSS

cross was discovered . The present church of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the site upon which one of the churches of Constantine was built, but the second church, the See also:

• BASILICA

Basilica of the Cross, has completely disappeared . The next important See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch in building construction at Jerusalem was about 460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and expended large sums on the improvement of the city .

The walls were repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to have been extended on the south so as to include the pool of Siloam . A church was built above the poor, probably at the same time, and, after having completely disappeared for many centuries, it was recovered by F . J . Bliss when making his exploration of Jerusalem . The empress also erected a large church in See also:

• HONOUR (Lat. honos or lwnor, honoris; in English the word was spelled with or without the u indifferently until the 17th century, but during the 18th century it became fashion-able to spell the word " honor "; Johnson's and Webster's Dictionaries stereoty

honour of St See also:

• STEPHEN
• STEPHEN (1097?-1154)
• STEPHEN (ISTVAN) BATHORY (1533-1586)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES (1789-1859)
• STEPHEN, SIR JAMES FITZJAMES, BART
• STEPHEN, SIR LESLIE (1832-1904)

Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and is believed to have been buried therein . The site of this church was discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt . In the 6th century the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica at Jerusalem, in honour of the Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary, and attached to it two hospitals, one for the reception of pilgrims and one for the See also:

• ACCOMMODATION (Lat. accommodare, to make fit, from ad, to, cum, with, and modus, measure)

accommodation of the sick poor . The description given by See also:

• PROCOPIUS

Procopius does not indicate clearly where this church was situated . A theory frequently put forward is that it stood within the Haram area near the Mosque of el Aksa, but it is more probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the See also:

• COENACULUM

Coenaculum or last supper, where the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan building known as the tomb of David now stands . In 614 See also:

• CHOSROES

Chosroes II., the king of See also:

• PERSIA

Persia, captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the buildings, and massacred a great number of the inhabitants . The churches at the Holy Sepulchre were much damaged, but were partially restored by the See also:

• MONK (O.Eng. munuc; this with the Teutonic forms, e.g. Du. monnik, Ger. Witch, and the Romanic, e.g. Fr. moine, Ital. monacho and Span. monje, are from the Lat. monachus, adaptedfrom Gr. µovaXos, one living alone, a solitary; Own, alone)
• MONK (or MONCK), GEORGE
• MONK, JAMES HENRY (1784-1856)
• MONK, MARIA (c. 1817—1850)

monk Modestus, who devoted himself with great See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy to the work . After a severe struggle the Persians were defeated by the emperor See also:

• HERACLIUS ('HpaeXaos) (c. 575-642)

Heraclius, who entered Jerusalem in See also:

• TRIUMPH (triumphus)

triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross, which had been carried off by Chosroes .

At this period the See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion of See also:

• MAHOMET (strictly MUHAMMAD, commonly also MOHAMMED)

Mahomet was spreading over the east, and in 637 the See also:

• CALIPH, CALIF

caliph Omar marched on Jerusalem, which capitulated after a siege of four months . Omar behaved with great moderation, restraining his troops from pillage and leaving the Christians in possession of their churches . A wooden mosque' was erected near the site of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque of Aksa, built by the See also:

• AMIR, or AMEER (an Arabic word meaning " commander," from the root amr, " commanding ")

amir Abdalmalik (Abd el Malek), who also constructed the Dome of the Rock, known as the Mosque of Omar, in 688 . The Mahommedans held Jerusalem until 1099, when it was captured by the crusaders under See also:

• GODFREY, SIR EDMUND BERRY (1621-1678)

Godfrey of See also:

• BOUILLON

Bouillon, and became the capital of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (see See also:

• CRUSADES

CRUSADES, vol. viii. p . 401) until 1187, when See also:

• SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith ") (1138—1193)

Saladin re-conquered it, and rebuilt the walls . Since that time, except from 1229 to 1239, and from 1243 to 1244, the city has been held by the Mahommedans . It was occupied by the See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian sultans until 1517, when the See also:

• TURKS

Turks under See also:

• SELIM

Selim I. occupied Syria . Selim's successor, See also:

• SULEIMAN

Suleiman the Magnificent, restored the fortifications, which since that time have been little altered . Modern Jerusalem.—Jerusalem is the chief town of a sanjak,. governed by a mutessarif, who reports directly to the See also:

• PORTE, THE SUBLIME (Arab. babi-'ali, the high gate, through the French translation la sublime porte)

Porte . It has the usual executive and town See also:

• COUNCILS

councils, upon which the recognized religious communities, or millets, have representatives; and it is garrisoned by See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry of the V. army See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps . The city is connected with its See also:

• PORT

port, Jaffa, by a See also:

• CARRIAGE

carriage road, 41 m., and by a See also:

• METRE ((terpuc?, sc. rFxvf, from Gr. Or poi', measure)

metre-See also:

• GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon)

gauge railway, 54 m., which was completed in 1892, and is worked by a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• COMPANY

company . There are also carriage roads to See also:

• BETHLEHEM
• BETHLEHEM (Heb. " House of Bread," or, according to a more questionable etymology, " of [the god] Lakhmu ")

Bethlehem, See also:

• HEBRON (mod. Khulzl er-Rahman, i.e. " the friend of the Merciful One "—an allusion to Abraham)

Hebron and See also:

• JERICHO (WI:, m;, once ahn:, a word of disputed meaning, whether " fragrant " or " moon [-god] city ")

Jericho, and a road to Nablus was in course of construction in 1909 .

See also:

• PRIOR (from Lat. prior—former, and hence superior, through O. Fr. priour)
• PRIOR, MATTHEW (1664-1721)

Prior to 1858, when the modern building period commenced, Jerusalem See also:

• LAY

lay wholly within its 16th-century walls, and even as See also:

• LATE

late as 1875 there were few private residences beyond their limits . At present Jerusalem without the walls covers a larger area than that within them . The growth has been chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs on the west, and on the south-west near the railway station on the See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain of Rephaim . The See also:

• VILLAGE

village of Siloam has also increased in size, and the western slopes of Olivet are being covered with churches, monasteries and houses . Amongst the most marked features of the change that has taken place since 1875 are the growth of religious and philanthropic establishments; the settlement of Jewish colonies from See also:

• BOKHARA (Bokhara-i-Sherif)
• BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara)

Bokhara, See also:

• YEMEN (Yaman)

Yemen and Europe; the See also:

• MIGRATION

migration of Europeans, old Moslem families, and Jews from the city to the suburbs; the increased vegetation, due to the numerous gardens and improved methods of cultivation; the substitution of See also:

• TIMBER

timber and red tiles for the vaulted See also:

• STONE
• STONE (0. Eng. shin; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Stein, Du. steen, Dan. and Swed. sten; the root is also seen in Gr. aria, pebble)
• STONE, CHARLES POMEROY (1824-1887)
• STONE, EDWARD JAMES (1831-1897)
• STONE, FRANK (1800-1859)
• STONE, GEORGE (1708—1764)
• STONE, LUCY [BLACKWELL] (1818-1893)
• STONE, MARCUS (184o— )
• STONE, NICHOLAS (1586-1647)

stone See also:

• ROOFS

roofs which were so characteristic of the old city; the striking want of beauty, grandeur, and See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony with their environment exhibited by most of the new buildings; and the introduction of wheeled transport, which, cutting into the soft limestone, has produced mud and dust to an extent previously unknown . To facilitate communication between the city and its suburbs, the Bab ez-Zahire, or Herod's Gate, and a new gate, near the north-west See also:

• ANGLE (from the Lat. angulus, a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, angus, does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the Gr. ayKOS, a bend; both connected with the Aryan root ank-, to

angle of the walls, have been opened; and a portion of the wall, adjoining the Jaffa Gate, has been thrown down, to allow See also:

• FREE

free See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access for carriages . Within the city the principal streets have been roughly paved, and See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron bars placed across the narrow alleys to prevent the passage of camels . Without the walls carriage roads have been made to the mount of Olives, the railway station, and various parts of the suburbs, but they are kept in See also:

• BAD, BCD

bad repair . Little effort has been made to meet the increased sanitary requirements of the larger See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population and wider inhabited area . There is no municipal water-supply, and the main drain of the city discharges into the lower pool of Siloam, which has become an open cesspit . In several places the debris within the walls is saturated with sewage, and the water of the Fountain of the Virgin, and of many of the old cisterns, is unfit for drinking . Amongst the more important buildings for ecclesiastical and philanthropic purposes erected to the north of the city since 186o are the See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian See also:

• CATHEDRAL

cathedral, See also:

• HOSPICE (Lat. hospitium, entertainment, hospitality, inn, hospes, host)

hospice and See also:

• HOSPITAL (Lat. haspitalis, the adjective of hospes, host or guest)

hospital; the French hospital of St See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis, and hospice and church of St See also:

• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (354-430)
• AUGUSTINE, SAINT (d. c.613)

Augustine; the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools, orphanages and hospitals; the new hospital and See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial school of the See also:

• LONDON

London See also:

• MISSION

mission to the Jews; the Abyssinian church ; the church and schools of the Church missionary society; the See also:

• ANGLICAN

Anglican church, See also:

• COLLEGE (Collegium)

college and bishop's house; the Dominican monastery, See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary and church of St Stephen; the See also:

• ROTHSCHILD

Rothschild hospital and girls' school; and the industrial school and workshops of the See also:

• ALLIANCE

Alliance Israelite .

On the mount of Olives are the Russian church, tower and hospice, near the See also:

• CHAPEL

chapel of the See also:

• ASCENSION
• ASCENSION, FEAST OF THE

Ascension; the French Paternoster church; the Carmelite nunnery; and the Russian church of St Mary Magdalene, near See also:

• GETHSEMANE (Hebr. for " oil-press ")

Gethsemane . South of the city are the Armenian monastery of Mount Zion and Bishop See also:

• GOBAT, SAMUEL (1799—1879)

Gobat's school . On the west side are the institution of the sisters of St See also:

• VINCENT (or VINCENTIUS), ST
• VINCENT, GEORGE (1796-1831?)
• VINCENT, MARY ANN (1818-1887)

Vincent; the Ratisbon school; the See also:

• MONTEFIORE, SIR MOSES HAIM (1784–1885)

Montefiore hospice; the See also:

• BRITISH

British ophthalmic hospital of the knights of St See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John; the See also:

• CONVENT (Lat. conventus, from convenire, to come together)

convent and church of the Clarisses; and the Moravian leper hospital . Within the city walls are the Latin Patriarchal church and residence; the school of the Freres de la See also:

• DOCTRINE

Doctrine Chretienne; the schools and See also:

• PRINTING (from Lat. imprimere, O. Fr. empreindre)

printing house of the See also:

• FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites; also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the colour of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey)

Franciscans; the Coptic monastery; the German church of the Redeemer, and hospice; the United Armenian church of the Spasm; the convent and school of the Sceurs,de Zion; the See also:

• AUSTRIAN

Austrian hospice; the See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish school and museum; the monastery and seminary of the Freres de la Mission Algerienne, with the restored church of St See also:

• ANNE (1665-1714)
• ANNE (1693-1740)

Anne, the church, schools and hospital of the London mission to the Jews; the Armenian seminary and Patriarchal buildings; the Rothschild hospital ; and Jewish hospices and synagogues . The See also:

• CLIMATE

climate is naturally good, but continued neglect of sanitary precautions has made the city unhealthy . During the summer months the See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat is tempered by a fresh sea-See also:

• BREEZE

breeze, and there is usually a See also:

• SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813)
• SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679)
• SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714)
• SHARP, RICHARD (1759-1835)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1749-1824)
• SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905)

sharp fall of temperature at See also:

• NIGHT

night; but in spring and autumn the east and south-east winds, which See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow across the heated depression of the See also:

• GHOR, or GHUR

Ghor, are enervating and oppressive . A dry See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season, which lasts from May to See also:

• OCTOBER

October, is followed by a See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy season, divided into the early See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter and latter rains . See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

Snow falls two years out of three, but soon melts . The mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature is 62.8° F., the maximum 112° and the minimum 2 The mean monthly temperature is lowest (47.2°) in See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, and highest (76 3°) in See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August . The mean annual rainfall (1861 to 1899) is 26.06 in . The most unhealthy period is from 1st May to 31st October, when there are, from time to time, outbreaks of typhoid, small-pox, See also:

• DIPHTHERIA (from 8c4BEpa, a skin or membrane)

diphtheria and other epidemics . The unhealthiness of the city is chiefly due to want of proper drainage, impure drinking-water, miasma from the disturbed rubbish heaps, and contaminated dust from the uncleansed roads and streets .

The only See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry is the manufacture of See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive-See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and See also:

• MOTHER

mother-of-See also:

• PEARL
• PEARL, THE

pearl goods for See also:

• SALE
• SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736)
• SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782—1845)

sale to pilgrims and for export . The imports (see See also:

• JOPPA

JOPPA) are chiefly food, clothing and building material . The population in 1905 was about 6o,00o (Moslems 7000, Christians 13,000, Jews 40,000) . During the See also:

• PILGRIMAGE (Fr. pelerinage, Lat. peregrinatio)

pilgrimage season it is increased by about 15,000 travellers and pilgrims .