JESUITS  , the name generally given to the members of the Society of Jesus, a religious See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order in the See also:

• ROMAN

Roman See also:

• CATHOLIC (Gr. KcaBoXuK6s, general, universal)

Catholic See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church, founded in 1539 . This Society may be defined, in its See also:

• ORIGINAL

original conception and well-avowed See also:

• OBJECT

object, as a See also:

• BODY

body of highly trained religious men of various degrees, See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound by the three See also:

• PERSONAL

personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with, in some cases, a See also:

• SPECIAL

special See also:

• VOW (Lat. votum, vow, promise: cf. VOTE)

vow to the See also:

• POPE (Gr. irarraas, post-classical Lat. papa, father)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1688–1744)
• POPE, ALEXANDER (1763-1835)
• POPE, JANE (1742-1818)
• POPE, JOHN (1822-1892)
• POPE, SIR THOMAS (c. 1507-1559)

pope's service, with the object of labouring for the spiritual See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good of themselves and their neighbours . They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy all the privileges of the other mendicant orders . They are governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by their founder, St See also:

• IGNATIUS ('Iyvfrior)

Ignatius of See also:

• LOYOLA, ST IGNATIUS OF (1491–1556)

Loyola, and approved by the popes . Their proper See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus," the word Societas being taken as synonymous with the original See also:

• SPANISH

Spanish See also:

• TERM

term, Compania; perhaps the military term Cohors might more fully have expressed the original See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea of a See also:

• BAND

band of spiritual soldiers living under See also:

• MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

martial See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law and discipline . The See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary term " Jesuit " was given to the Society by its avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings of See also:

• CALVIN, JOHN (1509-1564)

Calvin and in the registers of the See also:

• PARLEMENT (see PARLIAMENT)

Parlement of See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris as See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early as 1552 . Constitution and See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

Character.—The formation of the Society was a masterpiece of See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius on the See also:

• PART

part of a See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man (see LOYOLA) who was See also:

• QUICK

quick to realize the See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity of the moment . Just before Ignatius was experiencing the See also:

• CALL (from Anglo-Saxon ceallian, a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch kallen, to talk or chatter)

call to See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion, See also:

• LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546)

Luther had begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal See also:

• BULL
• BULL, GEORGE (1634–1710)
• BULL, JOHN (c. 1562–1628)
• BULL, OLE BORNEMANN (18ro-188o)

bull of See also:

• EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. ex, out of, away from; communis, common)

excommunication on the loth of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December 1520 . But while Luther's most formidable opponent was thus being prepared in See also:

• SPAIN
• SPAIN (Espana)

Spain, the actual formation of the Society was not to take See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place for eighteen years . Its conception seems to have See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius . It introduced a new idea into the Church . Hitherto all regulars made a point of the choral See also:

• OFFICE (from Lat. officium, " duty," " service," a shortened form of opifacium, from facere, " to do," and either the stem of opes, " wealth," " aid," or opus, " work ")

office in See also:

• CHOIR (0. Fr. cuer from Lat. chorus; pronounced quire, and until the end of the 17th century so spelt, the spelling being altered to agree with the Fr. chceur)

choir .

But as Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war, what was desirable in days of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace ceased when the See also:

• LIFE

life of the See also:

• CLOISTER (Lat. claustrum; Fr. cloitre; Ital. chiostro; Span. claustro; Ger. Kloster)

cloister had to be exchanged for the discipline of the See also:

• CAMP (from Lat. campus, field)

camp; so in the See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch of the new society which he laid before See also:

• PAUL
• PAUL (PAULUS)

Paul III., Ignatius laid down the principle that the See also:

• OBLIGATION

obligation of the See also:

• BREVIARY (Lat. breviarium, abridgment, epitome)

breviary should be fulfilled privately and separately and not in choir . The other orders, too, were bound by the idea of a constitutional See also:

• MONARCHY (Fr. monarchic, from Lat. monarchia, Gr. uovapXia, rule of one, µbvos, alone, apXi7, rule)

monarchy based on the democratic spirit . Not so with the Society . The founder placed the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general for life in an almost uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the See also:

• FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. facultas, ability to do anything, from facilis, easy, facere, to do; another form of the word in Lat. facilitas, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning)

faculty of dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative body, the general congregations . Thus the principle of military obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in the older orders, which preserved to their members certain constitutional rights . The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitutions . Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things result from the See also:

• SYSTEM

system of training which succeeds in forming men to a type that is considered desirable . But it must not be thought that in practice the See also:

• RULE

rule of the Society and the high degree of obedience demanded result in See also:

• MERE
• MERE, ADALBERT (1838-1909)

mere mechanism . By a system of check and See also:

• COUNTER

counter check devised in the constitutions the See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power of See also:

• LOCAL

local superiors is modified, so that in practice the working is smooth . Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every society, his followers were flesh and See also:

• BLOOD

blood, not See also:

• MACHINES

machines . He made it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the individual nothing, except so far as he might prove a useful See also:

• INSTRUMENT (Lat. instrumentum, from insincere, to build up, furnish, arrange, prepare)

instrument for carrying out the Society's See also:

• OBJECTS

objects . Ignatius said to his secretary Polanco that " in those who offered themselves he looked less to purely natural goodness than to firmness of character and ability for business, for he was of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion that those who were not See also:

• FIT

fit for public business were not adapted for filling offices in the Society." He further declared that even exceptional qualities and endowments in a See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate were valuable in his eyes only on the See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of their being brought into See also:

• PLAY

play, or held in See also:

• ABEYANCE (O. Fr. abeance, " gaping")

abeyance, strictly at the command of a See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior .

Hence his teaching on obedience . His See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter on this subject, addressed to the Jesuits of See also:

• COIMBRA

Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard formularies of the Society, ranking with those other products of his See also:

• PEN (Lat. penna, a feather, pen)

pen, the Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions . In this letter Ignatius clothes the general with the See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

powers of a See also:

• COMMANDER

commander-in-See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief in See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of war, giving him the See also:

• ABSOLUTE (Lat. absolvere, to loose, set free)

absolute disposal of all members of the Society in every place and for every purpose . He pushes the claim even further, requiring, besides entire outward submission to command, also the See also:

• COMPLETE

complete See also:

• IDENTIFICATION (Lat. idem, the same)

identification of the inferior's will with that of the superior . He See also:

• LAYS

lays down that the superior is to be obeyed simply as such and as See also:

• STANDING

standing in the place of See also:

• GOD

God, without reference to his personal See also:

• WISDOM, BOOK OF, or WISDOM OF SOLOMON (Sept. Io4ia IaXwµwvos; Lat. Vulg. Liber sapientiae)

wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short of making the superior's will one's own, in inward See also:

• AFFECTION (Lat. ad, and facere, to do something to, sc. a person)

affection as well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond the letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praise-worthy, is disobedience, and that the " See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

sacrifice of the See also:

• INTELLECT (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand)

intellect " is the third and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when the inferior not only See also:

• WILLS, WILLIAM GORMAN (1828-1891)

wills what the superior wills, but thinks what he thinks, submitting his See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment, so far as it is possible for the. will to See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence and See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead the judgment . This Letter on Obedience' was written for the guidance and formation of Ignatius's own followers; it was an entirely domestic affair . But when it became known beyond the Society the teaching met with See also:

• GREAT

great opposition, especially from members of other orders whose institutes represented the normal days of peace rather than those of war . The letter was condemned by the Inquisitions of Spain and See also:

• PORTUGAL

Portugal; and it tasked all the skill and learning of See also:

• BELLARMINE (Ital. Bellarmino), ROBERTO FRANCESCO ROMOLO (1542-1621)

Bellarmine as its apologist, together with the whole influence of the Society, to avert what seemed to be a probable condemnation at See also:

• ROME
• ROME (Roma)

Rome . The teaching of the Letter must be understood in the living spirit of the Society . Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as to See also:

• GUIDE (in Mid. Eng. gyde, from the Fr. guide; the earlier French form was guie, English " guy," the d was due to the Italian form guida; the ultimate origin is probably Teutonic, the word being connected with the base seen in O. Eng. witan, to know)

guide him in imposing a See also:

• PRECEPT (Lat. praeceptum, a rule, from praecipere, literally to take beforehand, to give rules, instructions or orders)

precept of obedience . When a superior knows the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he is aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater importance than those that the inferior has brought forward . Ignatius distinctly excepts the See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case where obedience in itself would be sinful: " In all things except See also:

• SIN
• SIN (O. Eng. syn: a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zonde, Ger. Siinde)

sin I ought to do the will of my superior and not my own." There may be cases where an inferior See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

judges that what is commanded is sinful .

What is to be done ? Ignatius says: " When it seems to me that I am commanded by my superior to do a thing against which my See also:

• CONSCIENCE (Lat. con-scientia, literally " knowledge of a thing shared with another person " or " complete knowledge," and derivatively " consciousness in general)
• CONSCIENCE, HENDRIK (1812-1883)

conscience revolts as sinful and my superior judges otherwise, it is my See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty to yield my doubts to him unless I am otherwise constrained by evident reasons . . .. If submissions do not appease my conscience I must impart my doubts to two or three persons of discretion and abide by their decision." From this it is clear that only in doubtful cases concerning sin should an inferior try to submit his judgment to that of his superior, who ex officio is held to be not only one who would not order what is clearly sinful, but also a competent See also:

• JUDGE (Lat. judex, Fr. juge)

judge who knows and understands, better than the inferior, the nature and aspect of the command . As the Jesuit obedience is based on the law of God, it is clearly impossible that he should be bound to obey in what is directly opposed to the divine service . A Jesuit lives in obedience all his life, though the yoke is not galling nor always See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt . He can accept no dignity or office which will make him See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent of the Society; and even if ordered by the pope to accept the cardinalate or the episcopate, he is still bound, if not to obey, yet to listen to the See also:

• ADVICE (Fr. avis, from Lat. ad, to, and visum, viewed)

advice of those whom the general deputes to counsel him in important matters . The Jesuits had to find their See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal See also:

• WORK

work in the See also:

• WORLD

world and in See also:

• DIRECT

direct and immediate contact with mankind . To seek spiritual perfection in a retired life of contemplation and See also:

• PRAYER (from Lat. precari, entreat; Ital. pregaria, Fr. priere)
• PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON

prayer did not seem to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had brought about the revolt from Rome . He withdrew his followers from this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation for later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a See also:

• PRIME, PRIMER AND PRIMING

prime duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such See also:

• EXTERNAL

external peculiarities of See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in the most various places and circumstances . Another See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change he introduced even more completely than did the founders of the Friars . The Jesuit has no See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home: the whole world is his See also:

• PARISH (Gr. irapouda, district, neighbourhood; 7r&poucos, one dwelling near or beside, from crap&, OtKOS, house; Lat. paroecur, Late Lat. parochia; cf. Fr. paroisse)

parish .

Mobility and cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society . As Ignatius said, the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient monastic communities were the See also:

• INFANTRY

infantry of the Church, whose duty was to stand firmly in one place on the battlefield; the Jesuits were to be her See also:

• LIGHT

light See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse, capable of going anywhere at a moment's See also:

• NOTICE

notice, but especially See also:

• APT

apt and de-signed for scouting and skirmishing . To carry out this view, it was one of his plans to send foreigners as superiors or See also:

• OFFICERS

officers to the Jesuit houses in each See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country, requiring of these envoys, however, invariably to use the See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language of their new place of See also:

• RESIDENCE (Latin residere, to remain behind, to dwell, reside)

residence andto study it both in speaking and See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing till entire mastery of it had been acquired—thus by degrees making all the parts of his system mutually interchangeable, and so largely increasing the number of persons eligible to fill any given See also:

• POST

post without reference to locality . But subsequent experience has, in practice, modified this interchange, as far as local See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government goes, though the central government of the Society is always See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan . Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living See also:

• ENERGY (from the Gr. ivipyela; iv, in, ipyov, work)

energy and not a mere abstract theory . The Society is distributed into six grades: novices, scholastics, temporal coadjutors (See also:

• LAY

lay See also:

• BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824)

brothers), spiritual coadjutors, professed of the three vows, and professed of the four vows . No one can become a postulant for See also:

• ADMISSION

admission to the Society until fourteen years old, unless by special See also:

• DISPENSATION

dispensation . The novice is classified according as his destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third class of " indifferents " receives such as are reserved for further inquiry before a decision of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind is made . The novice has first to undergo a strict See also:

• RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back)

retreat, practically in solitary confinement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual Exercises and makes a general See also:

• CONFESSION (Lat. confessio, from confiteor, acknowledge, confess)

confession of his whole life; after which the first novitiate of two years' duration begins . In this See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, his weak points are noted and his will is tested . Prayer and the practices of See also:

• ASCETICISM

asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occupations of the novice . He may leave or be dismissed at any time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to the grade of scholastic and takes the following See also:

• SIMPLE

simple vows in the presence of certain witnesses, but not to any See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person: " Almighty See also:

• EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE

Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in Thy See also:

• HOLY

holy sight, yet relying on Thine See also:

• INFINITE (from Lat. in, not, finis, end or limit; cf. findere, to deave)

infinite kindness and See also:

• MERCY (adapted from Fr. merci, Lat. merces, reward)
• MERCY (or MERCI), FRANZ, FREIHERR VON

mercy and impelled by the See also:

• DESIRE

desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy Virgin See also:

• MARY
• MARY (1457-1482)
• MARY (1496-1533)
• MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS

Mary and all Thy heavenly See also:

• HOST

host, I, N., vow to Thy divine See also:

• MAJESTY (Fr. majeste; Lat. majestas, grandeur, greatness, from the base mag-, as in magnus, great, major, greater, &c.)

Majesty Poverty, Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society of Jesus, and promise that I will enter the same Society to live in it perpetually, understanding all things according to the Constitutions of the Society .

I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and clemency, through the Blood of Jesus See also:

• CHRIST (Gr. X pLQTOS, Anointed)
• CHRIST, WILHELM VON (1831-1906)

Christ, that See also:

• THOU, JACQUES AUGUSTE DE [THUANUS] (1553-1617)
• THOU, NOM

Thou wilt deign to accept this sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast granted me to desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant See also:

• GRACE (Fr. grace, Lat. gratia, from grates, beloved, pleasing; formed from the root cra-, Gr. xav-, cf. xaipw, x6p,ua, Xapts)
• GRACE, WILLIAM GILBERT (1848– )

grace to fulfil it." The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an under-See also:

• GRADUATE (Med. Lat. graduale, to admit to an academical degree, gradus)

graduate at a university . After passing five years in arts he has, while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit See also:

• SCHOOLS

schools or colleges . About this period he takes his simple vows in the following terms: " I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin See also:

• MOTHER

Mother and the whole heavenly host, and to thee, See also:

• REVEREND (Lat. reverendus, gerundive of revereri, to revere, pay respect to)

Reverend See also:

• FATHER

Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience ; and according to it a See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar care in the See also:

• EDUCATION

education of boys, according to the manner expressed in the Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society." The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education . The scholastic does not begin the study of See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology until he is twenty-eight or See also:

• THIRTY

thirty, and then passes through a four or six years' course . Only when he is thirty-four or thirty-six4can he be ordained a See also:

• PRIEST (Ger. Priester, Fr. pretre)

priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual coadjutor . . A lay See also:

• BROTHER

brother, before he can become a temporal coadjutor for the See also:

• DISCHARGE (adapted from the O. Fr. discharge, modern decharge, from a med. Lat. discargare, to unload, dis- and earn care, to load, cf. " charge ")

discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten years before he is admitted to vows . Sometimes after ordination the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away to a third See also:

• YEAR

year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a preparation for his See also:

• SOLEMN (Lat. sollemnis, sollemnis, less correctly solennis, yearly, annual; from sollus = totus, whole, entire, Gr. Mos., and annus, year)

solemn profession of the three vows . His former vows were simple and the Society was at See also:

• LIBERTY (Lat. libertas, from liber, free)

liberty to dismiss him for any canonical See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason . The See also:

• FORMULA
• FORMULA (Lat. diminutive of forma, shape, pattern, &c., especially used of rules of judicial procedure)

formula of the famous Jesuit vow is as follows: " I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the whole heavenly host, and to all standing by :and to thee, Reverend Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it apeculiar care in the education of boys according to the See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of Jesus and in its Constitutions." Immediately after the vows the Jesuit adds the following simple vows: (I) that he will never See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

act nor consent that the provisions in the constitutions concerning poverty should be changed; (2) that he will not directly nor indirectly procure See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election or promotion for himself to any prelacy or dignity in the Society; (3) that he will not accept or consent to his election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society unless forced thereunto by obedience; (4) that if he knows of others doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors; (5) that if elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear such advice as the general may deign to send him and will follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion . The professed is now eligible to certain offices in the Society, and he may remain as a professed father of the three vows for the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest of his life . The highest class, who constitute the real core of the Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, are the professed of the four vows . This glade can seldom be reached until the candidate is in his See also:

• FORTY

forty-fifth year, which involves a See also:

• PROBATION

probation of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on the novitiate at the earliest legal See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age .

The number of these select members is small in comparison with the whole Society; the exact proportion varies from time to time, the See also:

• PRESENT

present tendency being to increase the number . The vows of this grade are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the following important clause: " Moreover I promise the special obedience to the See also:

• SOVEREIGN

Sovereign Pontiff concerning See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic Letter and Constitutions." These various members of the Society are distributed in its novitiate houses, its colleges, its professed houses and its See also:

• MISSION

mission residences . The question has been hotly debated whether, in addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering in some degree to the See also:

• TERTIARIES (Lat. tertiarii, from tertius, third)

tertiaries of the Franciscan and Dominican orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its emissaries in various lay positions . This class was styled in See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France " Jesuits of the short robe," and there is some See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence in support of its actual existence under See also:

• LOUIS
• LOUIS (804–876)
• LOUIS (893–911)
• LOUIS, JOSEPH DOMINIQUE, BARON (1755-1837)
• LOUIS, or LEWIS (from the Frankish Chlodowich, Chlodwig, Latinized as Chlodowius, Lodhuwicus, Lodhuvicus, whence-in the Strassburg oath of 842-0. Fr. Lodhuwigs, then Chlovis, Loys and later Louis, whence Span. Luiz and—through the Angevin kings—Hungarian

Louis XV . The Jesuits themselves deny the existence of any such body, and are able to adduce the negative disproof that no See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision for it is to be found in their constitutions . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand there are clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly feasible if thought expedient . An admitted instance is the case of Francisco See also:

• BORGIA, CESARE
• BORGIA, FRANCIS (1510-1572)
• BORGIA, LUCREZIA (1480-1519)

Borgia, who in 1548, while still See also:

• DUKE (corresponding to Fr. duc, Ital. duca, Ger. Herzog)

duke of See also:

• GANDIA

Gandia, was received into the Society . What has given See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour to the idea is that certain persons have made vows of obedience to individual Jesuits; as See also:

• THOMAS
• THOMAS (c. 1654-1720)
• THOMAS (d. 110o)
• THOMAS, ARTHUR GORING (1850-1892)
• THOMAS, CHARLES LOUIS AMBROISE (1811-1896)
• THOMAS, GEORGE (c. 1756-1802)
• THOMAS, GEORGE HENRY (1816-187o)
• THOMAS, ISAIAH (1749-1831)
• THOMAS, PIERRE (1634-1698)
• THOMAS, SIDNEY GILCHRIST (1850-1885)
• THOMAS, ST
• THOMAS, THEODORE (1835-1905)
• THOMAS, WILLIAM (d. 1554)

Thomas Worthington, See also:

• RECTOR (Lat. for " ruler," " guide," &c., from regere, " rule ")

rector of the See also:

• DOUAI

Douai See also:

• SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed)

seminary, to Father See also:

• ROBERT
• ROBERT (1275—1343)
• ROBERT, HUBERT (1753-1808)
• ROBERT, LOUIS LEOPOLD (1794-1835)

Robert See also:

• PARSONS
• PARSONS (or PERSONS), ROBERT (1546-161o)
• PARSONS, THEOPHILUS (1750-1813)

Parsons; See also:

• ANN

Ann See also:

• VAUX, CALVERT (1824-1895)

Vaux to Fr . See also:

• HENRY
• HENRY (1129-1195)
• HENRY (c. 1108-1139)
• HENRY (c. 1174–1216)
• HENRY (Fr. Henri; Span. Enrique; Ger. Heinrich; Mid. H. Ger. Heinrich and Heimrich; O.H.G. Haimi- or Heimirih, i.e. " prince, or chief of the house," from O.H.G. heim, the Eng. home, and rih, Goth. reiks; compare Lat. rex " king "—" rich," therefore " mig
• HENRY, EDWARD LAMSON (1841– )
• HENRY, JAMES (1798-1876)
• HENRY, JOSEPH (1797-1878)
• HENRY, MATTHEW (1662-1714)
• HENRY, PATRICK (1736–1799)
• HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896)
• HENRY, ROBERT (1718-1790)
• HENRY, VICTOR (1850– )
• HENRY, WILLIAM (1795-1836)

Henry See also:

• GARNET
• GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555—1606)

Garnet, who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows, but that she might make them if she wished and then receive his direction . The archaeologist See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George See also:

• OLIVER, ISAAC (c. 1566--1617)
• OLIVER, PETER (1594-1648)

Oliver of See also:

• EXETER
• EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF

Exeter was, according to See also:

• FOLEY, JOHN HENRY (1818-1874)
• FOLEY, SIR THOMAS (1757-1833)

Foley's Records of the See also:

• ENGLISH

English See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

Province, the last of the See also:

• SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or generation, saeculum)

secular priests of See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England who vowed obedience to the Society before its suppression . The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each of the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to the offices of each See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

house in particular . There is no standard of electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general himself .

By a See also:

• MINUTE
• MINUTE (Lat. minutes, small; minuere, to make less)

minute and frequent system of See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official and private reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every member of the Society and of everything that concerns it throughout the world . Every Jesuit has not only the right but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and privately, with his general . While the general thus controls everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the part of the Society . A consultative See also:

• COUNCIL (Lat. concilium, from cum, together, and the root cal, to call)

council is imposed upon him by the general See also:

• CONGREGATION (Lat. congregatio, a gathering together, from cum, with, grex, gregis, a flock, herd)

congregation, consisting of the assistants of the various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and a See also:

• CONFESSOR

confessor . These he cannot remove nor select; and he is bound, in certain circumstances, to listen to their advice, althoughhe is not obliged to follow it . Once elected the general may not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from destruction . No such instance has occurred, although steps were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who had set himself against the current feeling . It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the pope; and his popular name, " the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black pope," has gone to confirm this idea . But it is based on an entirely wrong conception of the two offices . The suppression of the Society by See also:

• CLEMENT (Lat. Clemens, i.e. merciful; Gr. K)4gs)
• CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793)
• CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589)

Clement XIV. in 1773 was an object-See also:

• LESSON (through Fr. lecon from Lat. lectio, reading; legere, to read)

lesson in the supremacy of the pope . The Society became very numerous and, from time to time, received extraordinary privileges from popes, who were warranted by the necessities of the times in granting them . A great number of influential See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends, also, gathered See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the fathers who, naturally, sought in every way to retain what had been granted .

Popes who thought it well to bring about certain changes, or to withdraw privileges that were found to have passed their intentions or to interfere unduly with the rights of other bodies, often met with loyal resistances against their proposed See also:

• MEASURES

measures . Resistance up to a certain point is lawful and is not disobedience, for every society has the right of self-preservation . In cases where the popes insisted, in spite of the representations of the Jesuits, their commands were obeyed . Many of the popes were distinctly unfavourable to the Society, while others were as friendly, and often what one pope did against them the next pope withdrew . Whatever was done in times when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever may have been the. actions of individuals who, even in so highly organized a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be successfully controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result on the part of the Society has always been obedience to the pope, who authorized, protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately depend for their very existence . Thus constituted, with a skilful See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

union of strictness and freedom, of complex organization with a minimum of See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose of introducing a new power into the Church and the world . Its immediate services to the Church were great . The Society did much, single-handed, to See also:

• ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. role, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel)
• ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846– )

roll back the See also:

• TIDE (O. Eng. lid, cf. Ger. Zeit, time or season, connected with root of Sanskrit a-diti, endless)

tide of See also:

• PROTESTANT

Protestant advance when See also:

• HALF

half of See also:

• EUROPE

Europe, which had not already shaken off its See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so . The honours of the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary spirit has become their tradition . They had the wisdom to see and to admit, in their See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence with their superiors, that the real cause of the See also:

• REFORMATION
• REFORMATION, THE

Reformation was the See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance, neglect and vicious lives of so many priests . They recognized, as most See also:

• EARNEST (probably a corruption of the obsolete arles or erles, adapted from Lat. equivalent arrha, due to a confusion with the adjective " earnest," serious, O. Eng. eornust, cognate with Ger. ernst)

earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods . At a time when See also:

• PRIMARY

primary or even secondary education had in most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in system and material .

Putting fresh spirit and devotion into the work, they not merely taught and catechized in a new, fresh and attractive manner, besides establishing See also:

• FREE

free schools of good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils which were an enormous advance on those they found in use; so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible suppression in See also:

• TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth. taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather)

tool, confessedly the best in France . The Jesuit teachers conciliated the See also:

• GOODWILL

goodwill of their pupils by mingled firmness and gentleness . Although the method of the Ratio Studiorum has ceased to be acceptable, yet it played in its time as serious a part in the intellectual development of Europe as did the method of See also:

• FREDERICK
• FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrich; Ital. Federigo; Fr. Frederic and Federic; M.H.G. Friderich; O.H.G. Fridurih, " king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, A.S. frith, " peace," and rfh " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY)

Frederick the Great in See also:

• MODERN

modern warfare . See also:

• BACON
• BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H. Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon)
• BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS) (1561-1626)
• BACON, JOHN (1740–1799)
• BACON, LEONARD (1802–1881)
• BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-c. 1294)
• BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579)

Bacon succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these words: " As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put in practice " (De Augmentis, vi . 4) . In instruction they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character, deficient . Again, when most of the See also:

• CONTINENTAL

continental See also:

• CLERGY (M.E. clergie, O. Fr. clergie, from Low Lat. form clericia [Skean, by assimilation with O. Fr. clergie, Fr. clerge,from Low Lat. clericatus)
• CLERGY, BENEFIT OF

clergy had sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual See also:

• SLOUGH

slough which is pictured for us in the writings of See also:

• ERASMUS, DESIDERIUS (1466–1536)

Erasmus and the Epistolae obscurorum virorunz (see See also:

• HUTTEN, PHILIPP VON (c. 1511—1546)
• HUTTEN, ULRICH VON (1488—1523)

HUTTEN, See also:

• ULRICH

ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture and the unimpeachable purity of their lives . These qualities they have carefully maintained; and probably no large body of men in the world has been so free from the reproach of discreditable members or has kept up, on the whole, an equally high See also:

• AVERAGE

average of intelligence and conduct . As preachers, too, they delivered the See also:

• PULPIT (from Lat. pulpitum, a staging, platform: equivalents are Fr. chaire d'eglise, Ital. pulpito, Ger. Kanzel)

pulpit from the bondage of an effete See also:

• SCHOLASTICISM

scholasticism and reached at once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as the English pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days of See also:

• TILLOTSON, JOHN (1630-1694)

Tillotson; while in literature and theology they See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count a far larger number of respectable writers than any other religious society can boast . It is in the mission See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field, however, that their achievements have been most remarkable . Whether toiling among the teeming millions in Hindustan and See also:

• CHINA

China, labouring amongst the See also:

• HURONS

Hurons and See also:

• IROQUOIS

Iroquois of See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North See also:

• AMERICA

America, governing and civilizing the natives of See also:

• BRAZIL
• BRAZIL, or BRASIL

Brazil and See also:

• PARAGUAY

Paraguay in the missions and " reductions," or ministering, at the hourly See also:

• RISK

risk of his life to his See also:

• FELLOW

fellow-Catholics in England under See also:

• ELIZABETH
• ELIZABETH (1533-1603)
• ELIZABETH (1596-1662)
• ELIZABETH (1635–1650)
• ELIZABETH [ AMELIE EUGENIE ] (1837—1898)
• ELIZABETH [1lisabeth Philippine Marie Helene of France] (1764—1794)
• ELIZABETH [PAULINE ELIZABETH OTTILIE LOUISE] (1843– )
• ELIZABETH [PETROVNA] (1709-1762), EMPRESS
• ELIZABETH, SAINT (1207-1231)

Elizabeth and the Stuarts, the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable, cheerful and worthy of hearty admiration and respect . Nevertheless, two startling and indisputable facts meet the student who pursues the See also:

• HISTORY

history of the Society .

The first is the universal suspicion and hostility it has incurred—not merely from the Protestants whose avowed foe it has been, not yet from the enemies of all clericalism and See also:

• DOGMA (Gr. Sbypa, from b6aeiv, to seem; literally " that which seems, sc. good or true or useful " to any one)

dogma, but from every Catholic state and nation in the world . Its chief enemies have been those of the See also:

• HOUSEHOLD, ROYAL

household of the Roman Catholic faith . The second fact is the ultimate failure which seems to See also:

• DOG

dog all its most promising schemes and efforts . These two results are to be observed alike in the provinces of morals and politics . The first cause of the opposition indeed redounds to the Jesuits' See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit, for it was largely due to their success . Their pulpits rang with a studied eloquence; their churches, sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the See also:

• CONFESSIONAL (Late Lat. confessionale, neut. adj. from confessionalis, " pertaining to confession," Fr. confessional, Ital. confessionale)

confessional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of difficulties, for they were the fashionable professors of the See also:

• ART

art of direction . Full of See also:

• ENTHUSIASM

enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to their Society, they were able to bring in See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich and influential persons to their ranks; for, with a clear understanding of the power of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth, they became, of set purpose, the apostles of the rich and influential . The Jesuits felt that they were the new men, the men of the time; so with a perfect confidence in themselves they went out to set the Church to rights . It was no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well de-served, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who found themselves supplanted . Old-fashioned men, to whom the apostles' advice to " do all to the See also:

• GLORY (through the O. Fr. glorie, modern gloire, from Lat. gloria, cognate with Gr. KXebs, abets)

glory of God " seemed sufficient, mistrusted those who professed to go beyond all others and adopted as their See also:

• MOTTO (an Italian word, from Late Lat. muttum, a low sound, a mutter or murmur, cf. mutere, to mutter; the Latin word also gives Fr. mot, word)

motto the famous Ad majorem Dei gloriam, " To the greater glory of God." But, besides this, the esprit de See also:

• CORPS (pronounced as in French, from which it is taken, being a late spelling of tors, from Lat. corpus, a body; cf. " corpse ")

corps which is necessary for every body of men was, it was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant of any one or anything if not of " ours." The novelties too which they introduced into the conception of the religious life, naturally, were displeasing to the older orders, who felt like old aristocratic families towards a newly rich or See also:

• PURSE (Late Lat. bursa, adapted from Gr. Gupta, hide, skin; possibly O. Eng. pusa, bag, has influenced the change from b to p)

purse-proud up-start . The Society, or rather its members, were too aggressive and self-assertive to be welcomed; and a certain characteristic, which soon began to See also:

• MANIFEST (Lat. manifestus, clear, open to view)

manifest itself in an impatience of episcopal See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, showed that the quality of " Jesuitry," usually associated with the Society, was singularly lacking in their dealings with opponents . Their See also:

• POLITICAL

political attitude also alienated many .

Many of the Jesuits could not See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion from politics . To say this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded than most men of their age . But unfortunately they invariably took the wrong See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and allowed themselves to be made the tools of men who saw farther and more clearly than they did . They had their See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share, direct or indirect, in the embroiling of states, in concocting conspiracies and in kindling See also:

• WARS

wars . They were also responsible by their theoretical teachings in theological schools, where cases were considered and treated in the abstract, for not a few assassinations of the enemies of the cause . Weak minds heard tyrannicide discussed and defended in the abstract; andit was no wonder that, when opportunity served, the See also:

• TRAIN (M. Eng. trayn or trayne, derived through Fr. from Late Lat. trahinare, to drag, draw, Lat. trahere, cf. trail, trace, ultimately from the same source)

train that had been heedlessly laid by speculative professors was fired by rash hands . What professors like See also:

• SUAREZ, FRANCISCO (1548-1617)

Suarez taught in the See also:

• CALM

calm See also:

• ATMOSPHERE (Gr. fir µ6r, vapour; orkaipa, a sphere)

atmosphere of the lecture See also:

• HALL
• HALL (generally known as SCHWABISCH-HALL, tc distinguish it from the small town of Hall in Tirol and Bad-Hall, a health resort in Upper Austria)
• HALL (O.E. heall, a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Halle)
• HALL, BASIL (1788-1844)
• HALL, CARL CHRISTIAN (1812–1888)
• HALL, CHARLES FRANCIS (1821-1871)
• HALL, CHRISTOPHER NEWMAN (1816—19oz)
• HALL, EDWARD (c. 1498-1547)
• HALL, FITZEDWARD (1825-1901)
• HALL, ISAAC HOLLISTER (1837-1896)
• HALL, JAMES (1793–1868)
• HALL, JAMES (1811–1898)
• HALL, JOSEPH (1574-1656)
• HALL, MARSHALL (1790-1857)
• HALL, ROBERT (1764-1831)
• HALL, SAMUEL CARTER (5800-5889)
• HALL, SIR JAMES (1761-1832)
• HALL, WILLIAM EDWARD (1835-1894)

hall, what writers like