See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man of See also:

• JUDAH

Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; See also:

• LAT

Lat. Judaei)  , the See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general name for the Semitic See also:

• PEOPLE

people which inhabited See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine from See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times, and is known in various connexions as " the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews," " the See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews," and " See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel " (see §5 below) . Their See also:

• HISTORY

history may be divided into three See also:

• GREAT

great periods: (I) That covered by the Old Testament to the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of Judaism in the See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age, (2) that of the See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman domination to the destruction of See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem, and (3) that of the Diaspora or See also:

• DISPERSION
• DISPERSION (from Lat. dispergere, to scatter)

Dispersion to the See also:

• PRESENT

present See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day . I.—OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY 1 . The See also:

• LAND

Land and the People.—For the first two periods the history of the Jews is mainly that of Palestine . It begins among those peoples which occupied the See also:

• AREA

area lying between the See also:

• NILE
• NILE, BATTLE OF THE
• NILE, SOBAT

Nile on the one See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side and the See also:

• TIGRIS (Old Persian Tigrd, Diklat of the cuneiform inscriptions, Hiddekel of the Old Testament, Diglath of the Targum, Digla of the Arabs)

Tigris and the See also:

• EUPHRATES (Babylon. Purattu, Heb. Perath, Arab. Frdt or Furst, Old Pers. Ufratu, Gr. Eb4 parrls)

Euphrates on the other . Surrounded by See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient seats of culture in See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt and Babylonia, by the mysterious deserts of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia, and by the See also:

• HIGHLANDS, THE

highlands of See also:

• ASIA

Asia See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

Minor, Palestine, with See also:

• SYRIA

Syria on the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north, was the high road of See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization, See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade and warlike enterprise, and the See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting-See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place of religions . Its small principalities were entirely dominated by the great See also:

• POWERS, HIRAM (1805-1873)

Powers, whose weakness or acquiescence alone enabled them to rise above dependence or vassalage . The land was traversed by old-established trade routes and possessed important harbours on the Gulf of `See also:

• AKABA, GULF OF

Akaba and on the Mediterranean See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast, the latter exposing it to the See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence of the Levantine culture . It was " the See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical centre of those movements of history from which. the See also:

• WORLD

world has grown." The portion of this See also:

• DISTRICT

district abutting upon the Mediterranean may be divided into two See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main parts:—Syria (from the See also:

• TAURUS (" the Bull ")

Taurus to See also:

• HERMON

Hermon) and Palestine (southward to the See also:

• DESERT

desert bordering upon Egypt) . The latter is about 150 M. from north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south (the proverbial " See also:

• DAN

Dan to See also:

• BEERSHEBA

Beersheba "), with a breadth varying from 25 to 8o m., i.e. about 604o sq. m . This excludes the land See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east of the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan, on which see PALESTINE . From See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time to time streams of See also:

• MIGRATION

migration swept into Palestine and Syria .

Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home in Arabia to seek sustenance in its more fertile See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields, to See also:

• PLUNDER

plunder, or to See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape the pressure of tribes in the See also:

• REAR

rear . The course leads naturally into either Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the Euphrates, See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Syria is eventually reached . Tribes also moved down from the north: nomads, or offshoots from the powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor . Such frequently recurring movements introduced new See also:

• BLOOD

blood . Tribes, chiefly of See also:

• PASTORAL (from Lat. pastor, a shepherd)

pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly of their own type that a See also:

• COMPLETE

complete amalgamation could be effected, and this without any marked modification of the general characteristics of the earlier inhabitants . It is from such a See also:

• FUSION

fusion as this that the ancestors of the Jews were descended, and both the history and the See also:

• GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere)

genius of this people can be properly understood only by taking into See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account the physical features of their land and the characteristics of the Semitic races in general (see PALESTINE, SEMITIC See also:

• LANGUAGES

LANGUAGES) . 2 . Society and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

Religion.—The similarity uniting the peoples of the East in respect of racial and social characteristics is accompanied by a striking similarity of See also:

• MENTAL

mental outlook which has survived to See also:

• MODERN

modern times . Palestine, in spite of the numerous vicissitudes to which it has been subjected, has not lost its fundamental characteristics . The See also:

• POLITICAL

political changes involved in the Babylonian, See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian, See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian or Persian conquests surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves of Greek, Roman and other See also:

• EUROPEAN

European invasions . Even during the temporary Hellenization in the second great See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period the See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character of the people as a whole was untouched by the various See also:

• EXTERNAL

external influences which produced so great an effect on the upper classes . When the See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign civilization perished, the old culture once more came to the See also:

• SURFACE

surface .

Hence it is possible, by a comprehensive See also:

• COMPARATIVE

comparative study of Eastern peoples, in both ancient and modern times, to supplement and illustrate within certain limits our See also:

• DIRECT

direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and thus to understand more clearly those characteristics which were See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to them, in relation to those which they shared with other See also:

• ORIENTAL

Oriental peoples . Even before See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic history begins, the elements of religion and society had already crystallized into a solid coherent structure which was to persist without essential modification . Religion was inseparable from See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary See also:

• LIFE

life, and, like that of all peoples who are dependent on the fruits of the See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, was a nature-See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship . The tie between deities and worshippers was regarded as physical and entailed mutual obligations . The study of the See also:

• CLAN (Gaelic clann, O. Ir. cland, connected with Lat. planta, shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p)

clan-See also:

• GROUP

group as an organization is as instructive here as in other fields . The members of each group lived on terms of equality, the families forming a society of worship the See also:

• RITES

rites of which were conducted by the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head . Such See also:

• GROUPS
• GROUPS, THEORY

groups (each with its See also:

• LOCAL

local deity) would combine for definite purposes under the impulse of external needs, but owing to inevitable See also:

• INTERNAL

internal jealousies and the incessant feuds among a people averse from discipline and authority, the unions were not necessarily lasting . The elders of these groups possessed some influence, and tended to See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form an See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy, which took the See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead in social life, although their authority generally depended merely upon See also:

• CUSTOM (from O. Fr. costume, costume or coustume; Low Lat. costuma, a shortened form of consuetudo)

custom . Individual leaders in times of stress acquired a recognized supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest, the opportunities for continued advance gave further See also:

• SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Gr. o'KOaos, mark to shoot at, aim, o ic07reiv, to see, whence the termination in telescope, microscope, &c.)

scope to their authority . " The interminable feuds of tribes, conducted on the theory of blood-revenge, . . . can seldom be durably healed without the intervention of a third party who is called in as arbiter, and in this way an impartial and See also:

• WISE, HENRY ALEXANDER (1806-1876)
• WISE, ISAAC MAYER (1819-1900)

wise See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power acquires of See also:

• NECESSITY (Lat. necessitas)

necessity a great and beneficent influence over all around it " (W . R .

See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

Smith) . In time, notwithstanding a certain inherent See also:

• INDIVIDUALISM (from Lat. individualis, that which is not divided, an individual)

individualism and impatience of See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, veritable despotisms arose in the Semitic world, although such organizations were invariably liable to sudden collapse as the old forms of life See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke down with changing conditions.' 3 . Early History.2—Already in the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century B.C . Palestine was inhabited by a settled people whose See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language, thought and religion were not radically different several See also:

• HUNDRED

hundred years later . Small native princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after expelling the See also:

• HYKSOS

Hyksos from its See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders, had entered upon a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of conquests as far as the Euphrates . Some centuries previously, however, Babylonia had laid claim to the western states, and the Babylonian (i.e . Assyrian) script and language were now used, not merely in the See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence between Egypt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday life among the Palestinian princes themselves . To what extent specific Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions is not completely known . See also:

• CANAAN, CANAANITES

Canaan (Palestine and the south Phoenician coast land) and Amor (See also:

• LEBANON
• LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls ofchalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range)

Lebanon district and beyond) were under the See also:

• CONSTANT, BENJAMIN (1845-1902)

constant supervision of Egypt, and Egyptian officials journeyed See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round to collect See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute, to attend to complaints, and to assure themselves of the See also:

• ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from " liege," of which the derivatio

allegiance of the vassals . The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek (bibl . Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence (from See also:

• LACHISH

Lachish, See also:

• GEZER

Gezer, Megiddo, See also:

• JERICHO (WI:, m;, once ahn:, a word of disputed meaning, whether " fragrant " or " moon [-god] city ")

Jericho, &c.), represent advanced conditions of life and culture, the precise See also:

• CHRONOLOGICAL

chronological limits of which cannot be determined with certainty . This age, with its See also:

• REGULAR

regular maritime intercourse between the See also:

• AEGEAN

Aegean settlements, See also:

• PHOENICIA

Phoenicia and the See also:

• DELTA (from the shape of the Gr. letter A, delta, originally used of the mouth of the Nile)

Delta, and with lines of caravans connecting Babylonia, North Syria, Arabia and Egypt, presents a remarkable picture of life and activity, in the centre of which lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian colonies and some traces of Egyptian cults .

The history of this, the " Amarna " age, reveals a See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of anarchy in Palestine for which the weakness of Egypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian On the homogeneity of the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, see further, W . R . Smith, Religion of the Semites (2nd ed., chaps. i.–iii.) ; T . See also:

• NOLDEKE
• NOLDEKE, THEODOR (1836— )

Noldeke, Sketches from Eastern History, pp . 1—20 (on " Some Characteristics of the Semitic See also:

• RACE

Race ") ; and especially E . See also:

• MEYER, CHRISTIAN ERICH HERMANN VON (18or-1869)
• MEYER, HEINRICH AUGUST WILHELM (1800-1873)
• MEYER, JULIUS LOTHAR (183o-1895)
• MEYER, KONRAD FERDINAND (1825-1898)
• MEYER, VICTOR (1848-1897)
• MEYER, [MARIE] PAUL HYACINTHE (184o- )

Meyer, Gesch. d . Altertums (2nd ed., i . § § 330, sqq.) . For the relation between the See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical characteristics and the political history, see G . A . Smith, See also:

• HISTORICAL

Historical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography of the See also:

• HOLY

Holy Land . 2 For See also:

• FULLER, ANDREW (1954-1815)
• FULLER, GEORGE (1822—1884)
• FULLER, M
• FULLER, MARGARET, MARCHIONESS
• FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910)
• FULLER, THOMAS (16o8-1661)
• FULLER, WILLIAM (1670--c. 1717)

fuller See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information on this See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section see PALESTINE: History, and the related portions of BABYLONIA AND See also:

• ASSYRIA

ASSYRIA, EGYPT, See also:

• HITTITES

HITTITES, SYRIA.peoples were responsible .

Subdivided into a number of little local principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal intrigues and from the designs of this northern power . It is now that we find the restless IHabiru, a name which is commonly identified with that of the " Hebrews " ('ibrim) . They offer themselves where necessary to either party, and some at least perhaps belonged to the settled population . The growing prominence of the new northern group of " Hittite " states continued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have more external See also:

• LIGHT

light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (q.v.) are found strongly entrenched in the land . But by the end of the first See also:

• QUARTER (through Fr. from Lat. quartarius, fourth part)

quarter of the 13th century B.C . Egypt had recovered its See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province (precise boundary uncertain), leaving its rivals in See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession of Syria . Towards the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of the 13th century the Egyptian See also:

• KING
• KING (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. O. H. G. chun- kuning, chun- kunig, M.H.G. kiinic, kiinec, kiinc, Mod. Ger. Konig, O. Norse konungr, kongr, Swed. konung, kung)
• KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KING, 1ST BARON (1669-1734)
• KING, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888)
• KING, CLARENCE (1842–1901)
• KING, EDWARD (1612–1637)
• KING, EDWARD (1829–1910)
• KING, HENRY (1591-1669)
• KING, RUFUS (1755–1827)
• KING, THOMAS (1730–1805)
• KING, WILLIAM (1650-1729)
• KING, WILLIAM (1663–1712)

king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a successful See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, See also:

• ASCALON

Ascalon, Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or tribe) Israel.3 Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously threatened Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the 12th century they formed a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition on land and See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea which taxed all the resources of See also:

• RAMESES, or RAMESSES (Gen. xlvii. r1; Exod. xii. 37; Num. xxxiii. 3)

Rameses III . In the Purasati, apparently the most influential of these peoples, may be recognized the origin of the name " See also:

• PHILISTINE

Philistine." The Hittite power became weaker, and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have succeeded in maintaining themselves on the sea coast . External history, however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence would be most welcome . For a time the See also:

• FATE

fate of Syria and See also:

• PALES

Pales-tine seems to have been no longer controlled by the great powers . When the See also:

• CURTAIN

curtain rises again we enter upon the historical traditions of the Old Testament . 4 .

Biblical History.—For the rest of the first period the Old Testament forms the main source . It contains in fact the history itself in two forms: (a) from the creation of See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man to the fall of See also:

• JUDAH

Judah (See also:

• GENESIS
• GENESIS (Gr. 'ybeo-es, becoming; the term being used in English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being)

Genesis–2 See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

Kings), which is supplemented and continued further—(b) to the foundation of Judaism in the 5th century B.C . (See also:

• CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF

Chronicles—See also:

• EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning " help ")
• EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF
• EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [I Esdras]

Ezra-See also:

• NEHEMIAH (Heb. for " Yah[weh] comforts ")

Nehemiah) . In the light of contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress of scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern historical See also:

• CRITICISM
• CRITICISM (from the Gr. KpiTrlS, a judge, Kpivew, to decide, to give an authoritative opinion)

criticism, the See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation of the origin of mankind and of the history of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer be implicitly accepted . Written by an Oriental people and clothed in an Oriental See also:

• DRESS (from the Fr. dresser, to set out, arrange, formed from Lat. directus, arranged, dirigere, to direct, arrange)

dress, the Old Testament does not contain See also:

• OBJECTIVE, or OBJECT GLASS

objective records, but subjective history written and incorporated for specific purposes . Like many Oriental See also:

• WORKS

works it is a compilation, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles with See also:

• SAMUEL

Samuel–Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of the present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recur-See also:

• RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages; and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. KtpKOS or KpLKOS, Skt'. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "); in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used f

ring phenomenon . The See also:

• CRITICAL (in alphabetical order of authors)

critical examination of the nature and growth of this compilation has removed much that had formerly caused insuperable difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been made an integral or a relevant See also:

• PART

part of See also:

• PRACTICAL

practical religion . On the other See also:

• HAND
• HAND (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Hand, Goth. handus)
• HAND, FERDINAND GOTTHELF (1786-185r)

hand, criticism has given a deeper meaning to the Old Testament history, and has brought into See also:

• RELIEF

relief the central truths which really are vital; it may be said to have replaced a divine account of man by man's account of the divine . Scholars are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal features are best explained by the See also:

• GRAF, ARTURO (1848– )
• GRAF, KARL HEINRICH (1815–1869)

Graf-See also:

• WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS (1844— )

Wellhausen See also:

• HYPOTHESIS (from Gr. inrorcOivat, to put under; cf. Lat. suppositio, from sub-ponere)

hypothesis . This involves the view that the historical traditions are mainly due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions, one under the influence of the teaching of See also:

• DEUTERONOMY

Deuteronomy (See also:

• JOSHUA, BOOK OF

Joshua to Kings, see § 20), the other, of a more priestly character (akin to See also:

• LEVITICUS

Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, with traces in See also:

• JUDGES, THE BOOK OF

Judges to Kings, see § 23) . There are, of course, numerous problems See also:

• RELATING

relating to the nature, limits and See also:

• DATES

dates of the two recensions, of the incorporated See also:

• SOURCES

sources, and of other sources (whether early or See also:

• LATE

late) of See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent origin; and here there is naturally See also:

• ROOM

room for much divergence of See also:

• OPINION (Lat. opinio, from opinari, to think)

opinion . Older material (often of composite origin) has been used, not so much for the purpose of providing historical information, as with the See also:

• OBJECT

object of showing the religious significance of past history; Or land Israel, W .

Spiegelberg, Orient . Lit . Zeit. xi . (19o8), cols . 403–405 . and the series Joshua-Kings is actually included among the " prophets " in Jewish reckoning (see See also:

• MIDRASH

MIDRASH) . In general, one may often observe that freedom which is characteristic of early and unscientific historians . Thus one may See also:

• NOTE
• NOTE (Lat. nota, mark, sign, from noscere, to know)

note the reshaping of older material to agree with later thought, the See also:

• BUILDING

building up of past periods from the records of other periods, and a frequent loss of See also:

• PERSPECTIVE (Lat. peespicere, to see through)

perspective . The historical traditions are to be supplemented by the great See also:

• BODY

body of prophetic, legal and poetic literature. which reveal contemporary conditions in various internal See also:

• LITERARY

literary, theological or sociological features . The investigation of their true historical background and of the trustworthiness of their external setting (e.g. titles of See also:

• PSALMS, BOOK
• PSALMS, BOOK OF, or PSALTER

psalms, dates and headings of prophecies) involves a criticism of the historical traditions themselves, and thus the two See also:

• MAJOR
• MAJOR (Lat. for " greater ")
• MAJOR (or MAIR), JOHN (1470-1550)

major classes of material must be constantly examined both separately and in their bearing on one another . In a word, the study of biblical history, which is dependent in the first instance upon the written sources, demands constant See also:

• ATTENTION (from Lat. ad-tendo, await, expect; the condition of being " stretched " or " tense ")

attention to the See also:

• TEXT (Lat. textum, woven fabric, from texere, to weave)

text (which has had an interesting history) and to the literary features; and it requires a sympathetic acquaintance with Oriental life and thought, both ancient and modern, an appreciation of the necessity of employing the methods of scientific See also:

• RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore)

research, and (from the theological side) a reasoned estimate of the dependence of individual religious convictions upon the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter of the Old Testament.' In view of the numerous articles in this See also:

• WORK

work dealing with biblical subjects,' the present See also:

• SKETCH (directly adapted from Dutch schets, which was taken from Ital. schizzo, a rough draft, Lat. schedium, something hastily made, Gr. oxE&os, sudden, off-hand, axeb6v, near by; Ger. Skizze and Fr. esquisse are from the same source)

sketch is limited to the outlines of the traditional history; the religious aspect in its bearing upon biblical See also:

• THEOLOGY

theology (which is closely See also:

• BOUND, or BOUNDARY (from O. Fr. bonde, Med. Lat. bodena or butina, a frontier line)

bound up with the traditions) is handled separately under See also:

• HEBREW

HEBREW RELIGION . The related literature is enormous (see the See also:

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES

bibliographies to the See also:

• SPECIAL

special articles) ; it is indexed annually in Orientalische Bibliographie (See also:

• BERLIN
• BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF
• BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725–1799)

Berlin), and is usefully summarized in the Theologische Jahresbericht (Berlin) .

On the development of the study of biblical history see C . A . See also:

• BRIGGS, CHARLES AUGUSTUS (1841– )
• BRIGGS, HENRY (1556–1630)

Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture (1899), especially ch. xx . The first scientific historical work was by H . See also:

• EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875)
• EWALD, JOHANNES (1743-1781)

Ewald, Gesch. d . Volkes Israel (1843; 3rd ed., 1864–1868; Eng. trans., 1869–1883), popularized by See also:

• ARTHUR (Fr. Arius)
• ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN (1830 – 1886)

Arthur See also:

• PENRHYN, GEORGE SHOLTO GORDON

Penrhyn See also:

• STANLEY (FAMILY)
• STANLEY, ARTHUR PENRHYN (18x5–1881)
• STANLEY, EDWARD (1779-1849)
• STANLEY, SIR HENRY MORTON (184o-1904)
• STANLEY, SIR WILLIAM (1548-163o)
• STANLEY, THOMAS (1625-1678)

Stanley in his Hirt. of the Jewish See also:

• CHURCH
• CHURCH (according to most authorities derived from the Gr. Kvpcaxov [&wµa], " the Lord's [house]," and common to many Teutonic, Slavonic and other languages under various forms—Scottish kirk, Ger. Kirche, Swed. kirka, Dan. kirke, Russ. tserkov, Buig. cerk
• CHURCH, FREDERICK EDWIN (1826-1900)
• CHURCH, GEORGE EARL (1835–1910)
• CHURCH, RICHARD WILLIAM (1815–189o)
• CHURCH, SIR RICHARD (1784–1873)

Church (1863–1879) . The works of J . Wellhausen (especially Prolegomena to the Hist. of Israel, Eng. trans., 1885, also the brilliant See also:

• ARTICLE (from Lat. articulus, a joint)

article " Israel " in the 9th ed. of the Ency . Brit., 1879) were See also:

• EPOCH (Gr. E7roxij, holding in suspense, a pause, from E1rxav, to hold up, to stop)

epoch-making; his position was interpreted to See also:

• ENGLISH

English readers by W . See also:

• ROBERTSON, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1816-1853)
• ROBERTSON, GEORGE CROOM (1842-1892)
• ROBERTSON, JOSEPH (1810-1866)
• ROBERTSON, THOMAS WILLIAM (1829-1871)
• ROBERTSON, WILLIAM BRUCE (182o-1886)

Robertson Smith (Old Test. in Jewish Church, 1881, 2nd ed., 1892; Prophets of Israel, 1882, 2nd ed. by T . K . See also:

• CHEYNE, THOMAS KELLY (1841— )

Cheyne, 1902) .

The historical (and related) works of T . K . Cheyne, H . See also:

• GRAETZ, HEINRICH (1817–1891)

Graetz, H . Guthe, F . C . See also:

• KENT
• KENT, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• KENT, JAMES (1763-1847)
• KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748)

Kent, A . Kittel, W . H . Kosters, A . See also:

• KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891)

Kuenen, C . Piepenbring, and especially B .

See also:

• STADE
• STADE, BERNHARD (1848–1906)

Stade, al-though varying greatly in standpoint, are among the most valuable by See also:

• RECENT

recent scholars; H . P . Smith's Old Test . Hest . (" See also:

• INTERNATIONAL, THE

International Theological Library," See also:

• EDINBURGH

Edinburgh, 1903) is in many respects the most serviceable and complete study; a modern and more critical " Ewald " is a desideratum . For the works of numerous other scholars who have furthered Old Testament research in the past it must suffice to refer to the annotated See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list by J . M . P . Smith, Books for D.T . Study (See also:

• CHICAGO
• CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF

Chicago, 1908) . For the external history, E . See also:

• SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908)

Schrader, See also:

• CUNEIFORM (from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

Cuneiform Inscr. and the Old Testament (Eng. trans. by O .

C . Whitehouse, 1885–1888) is still helpful ; among the less technical works are J . F . McCurdy, History, Prophecy and the Monuments; B . See also:

• PATON, JOHN BROWN (1830- )
• PATON, SIR JOSEPH NOEL (1821-1901)

Paton, Syria and Palestine (1902); G . See also:

• MASPERO, GASTON CAMILLE CHARLES (1846– )

Maspero, Hist. ancienne (6th ed., 1904) ; A . Jeremias, Alte Test. See also:

• IM(K2+a2+h2—2 ah cos 0)

im Lichte d . See also:

• ALLEN, BOG OF
• ALLEN, ETHAN (1739–1789)
• ALLEN, GRANT CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIEI, (1848–1899)
• ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850– )
• ALLEN, JOHN (1476–1534)
• ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594)
• ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (183o-1889)

Allen Orients (2nd ed., 1906); and especially Altoriental . Texte u . Bilder zum Allen Test., ed. by H . Gressman, with A . Ungnad and H .

See also:

• RANKE, LEOPOLD VON (1795-1886)

Ranke (1909) . The most complete is that of Ed . Meyer, Gesch. d . Alterthums (2nd ed., 1907 sqq.) . That of Jeremias follows upon the lines of H . Winckler, whose works depart from the some-what narrow limits of purely " Israelite " histories, emphasize the necessity of observing the characteristics of Oriental thought and policy, and are invaluable for discriminating students . Winckler's own views are condensed in the 3rd edition—a re-See also:

• WRITING
• WRITING (the verbal noun of " to write," O. Eng. writan, to inscribe)

writing—of Schrader's work (Keilinschr. u. d . Alte Testament, 1903), and, with an instructive account of the history of " ancient nearer Asia," in H . F . Helmolt's World's History, iii . 1–252 (1903) . All modern i It is useful to compare the critical study of the See also:

• KORAN

Koran (q.v.), where, however, the investigation of its various " revelations " is simpler than that of the biblical " prophecies " on account of the greater See also:

• WEALTH

wealth of independent historical tradition .

See also G . B . See also:

• GRAY
• GRAY (or GREY), WALTER DE (d. 1255)
• GRAY, ASA (1810-1888)
• GRAY, DAVID (1838-1861)
• GRAY, ELISHA (1835-1901)
• GRAY, HENRY PETERS (1819-18/7)
• GRAY, HORACE (1828–1902)
• GRAY, JOHN DE (d. 1214)
• GRAY, JOHN EDWARD (1800–1875)
• GRAY, PATRICK GRAY, 6TH BARON (d. 1612)
• GRAY, ROBERT (1809-1872)
• GRAY, SIR THOMAS (d. c. 1369)
• GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1771)

Gray, Contemporary See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

Review (See also:

• JULY

July 1907) ; A . A . Bevan, See also:

• CAMBRIDGE
• CAMBRIDGE, EARLS AND DUKES OF
• CAMBRIDGE, RICHARD OWEN (1717-1802)

Cambridge Biblical Essays (ed . Swete, 1909), pp . 1–19 . 2 See primarily See also:

• BIBLE
• BIBLE, ENGLISH

BIBLE: Old Testament; the articles on the See also:

• CON

con-tents and literary structure of the several books; the various See also:

• BIOGRAPHICAL

biographical, topographical and ethnical articles, and the See also:

• SEPARATE

separate treatment of the more important subjects (e.g . See also:

• LEVITES

LEVITES, See also:

• PROPHET (Irpo4i ri7s)

PROPHET, See also:

• SACRIFICE (from Lat. sacrificium; sacer, holy, and facere, to make)

SACRIFICE).histories of any value are necessarily compromises between the biblical traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those studies which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or canonical representation often do greater See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice to the evidence as a whole than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic reconstructions.' Scientific biblical historical study, nevertheless, is still in a relatively backward See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition; and although the labours of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct epoch, the trend of research points to the recognition of the fact that the purely subjective literary material requires a more historical treatment in the light of our increasing knowledge of external and internal conditions in the oid Oriental world . But an inductive and deductive treatment, both comprehensive and in due proportion, does not as yet (1910) exist, and awaits fuller external evidence.' 5 . Traditions of Origin.—The Old Testament preserves the remains of an extensive literature, representing different stand-points, which passed through several hands before it reached its present form . Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing had See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long been known, and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a considerable amount of material culture, Palestine could look back upon a lengthy and stirring history which, however, has rarely See also:

• LEFT

left its See also:

• MARK
• MARK, CARL (1858– )
• MARK, GOSPEL OF ST
• MARK, ST

mark upon our records .

Whatever ancient sources may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy traditions were in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient Oriental world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in the first instance to those undated records which have survived in the form which the last editors gave to them . The critical investigation of these records is the indispensable prelude to all serious biblical study, and hasty or sweeping deductions from monumental or archaeological evidence, or versions compiled promiscuously from materials of distinct origin, are alike hazardous . A glimpse at Palestine in the latter See also:

• HALF

half of the second See also:

• MILLENNIUM (a pseudo-Latin word formed on the analogy of biennium, triennium, from Lat. milk, a thousand, and armies, year)

millennium B.C . (§ 3) prepares us for busy scenes and active intercourse, but it is not a history of this See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind which the biblical historians themselves transmit . At an age when—on literary-critical grounds—the Old Testament writings were assuming their present form, it was possible to See also:

• DIVIDE

divide the immediately preceding centuries into three distinct periods . (a) The first, that of the two See also:

• RIVAL

rival kingdoms: Israel (See also:

• EPHRAIM

Ephraim or See also:

• SAMARIA

Samaria) in the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south . Then (b) the former lost its See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence towards the close of the 8th century B.C., when a number of its inhabitants were carried away; and the latter shared the fate of See also:

• EXILE (Lat. exsilium or exilium, from exsul or exul, which is derived from ex, out of, and the root sal, to go, seen in salire, to leap, consul, &c.; the connexion with solum, soil, country is now generally considered wrong)

exile at the beginning of the 6th, but succeeded in making a fresh reconstruction some fifty or sixty years later . Finally (c), in the so-called " See also:

• POST

post-exilic " period, religion and life were reorganized under the influence of a new spirit; relations with Samaria were broken off, and Judaism took its definite character, perhaps about the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle or close of the 5th century . Throughout these vicissitudes there were important political and religious changes which render the study of the composite sources a work of unique difficulty . In addition to this it should be noticed that the See also:

• TERM

term " See also:

• JEW, THE WANDERING

Jew " (originally Yehudi), in spite of its wider application, means properly " man of Judah," i.e. of that small district which, with Jerusalem as its See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital, became the centre of Judaism . The favourite name " Israel " with all its religious and See also:

• NATIONAL

national associations is some-what ambiguous in an historical sketch, since, although it is used as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came to designate the true See also:

• NUCLEUS (Lat. for the kernal of a nut, nux, the stone of fruit)

nucleus of the worshippers of the national See also:

• GOD

god .Yahweh as op-posed to the See also:

• SAMARITANS

Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory (c) . A more general term is " Hebrew " (see HEBREW LANGUAGE), which, whether originally identical with the I,Iabiru or not (§ 3), is used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical records, see especially S .

R . See also:

• DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES (1846– )

Driver's See also:

• ESSAY, ESSAYIST (Fr. essai, Late Lat. exagium, a weighing or balance; exigere, to examine; the term in general meaning any trial or effort)

essay in See also:

• HOGARTH, WILLIAM (1697–1764)

Hogarth's Authority and See also:

• ARCHAEOLOGY (from Gr. &pxa1a, ancient things, and Xoyos, theory or science)

Archaeology; cf. also A . A . Bevan, Critical Review (1897), p . 406 sqq., 1898, pp . 131 sqq.); G . B . Gray, Expositor, May 1898; W . G . Jordan, Bib . Grit. and Modern Thought (1909), pp . 42 sqq .

For the sections which follow the present writer may be permitted to refer to his See also:

• INTRODUCTORY

introductory contributions in the Expositor (See also:

• JUNE

June, 1906; " The Criticism of the O.T.") ; the Jewish Quarterly Review (July 1905–See also:

• JANUARY

January 1907 = Critical Notes on O.T . History, especially sections vii.–ix.); July and See also:

• OCTOBER

October 1907, See also:

• APRIL

April 1908; Amer . Journ . Theol . (July 1909, ' See also:

• SIMEON
• SIMEON (or SYMEON) OF DURHAM (d. after 1129)
• SIMEON, JOSEPH JEROME, COMTE (1749–1842)

Simeon and See also:

• LEVI, HERMANN (1839-1900)
• LEVI, LEONE (1821-1888)

Levi: the Problem of the Old Testament ") ; and Swete's Cambridge Bib . Essays, pp . 54–89 (" The Present See also:

• STAGE (Fr. 6/age; from Lat. stare, to stand)

Stage of O.T . Research ") . deserves preference where precise distinction is unnecessary or impossible . The traditions which prevailed among the Hebrews concerning their origin belong to a time when Judah and Israel were regarded as a unit . Twelve divisions or tribes, of which Judah was one, held together by a traditional sentiment, were traced back to the sons of See also:

• JACOB
• JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858)

Jacob (otherwise known as Israel), the son of See also:

• ISAAC (Hebrew for " he laughs," on explanatory references to the name, see ABRAHAM)

Isaac and See also:

• GRANDSON (Ger. Grandsee)

grandson of See also:

• ABRAHAM, or ABRAM (Hebrew for " father is high ")

Abraham . Their names vary in origin and probably also in point of age, and where they represent fixed territorial limits, the districts so described were in some cases certainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry .

But as tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many characteristic traditions which were doubtless current a number have been preserved, though not in any very early dress . Close relationship was recognized with the Aramaeans, with See also:

• EDOM

Edom, See also:

• MOAB

Moab and See also:

• AMMON
• AMMON, CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1766—185o)

Ammon . This is characteristically expressed when See also:

• ESAU

Esau, the ancestor of Edom, is represented as the See also:

• BROTHER

brother of Jacob, or when Moab and Ammon are the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children of See also:

• LOT
• LOT (Lat. Oltis)

Lot, Abraham's See also:

• NEPHEW

nephew (see See also:

• GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yivos, family, and Vryos, theory)

GENEALOGY: Biblical) . Abraham, it was believed, came from See also:

• HASSAN

Hassan (Carrhae), primarily from Babylonia, and Jacob re-enters from See also:

• GILEAD (i.e. " hard " or " rugged," a name sometimes used, both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the southern base of Hermon (Dent. xxxiv. 1; J

Gilead in the north-east with his Aramaean wives and concubines and their families (See also:

• BENJAMIN
• BENJAMIN, JUDAHPHILIP (1811-1884)

Benjamin excepted) . It is on this occasion that Jacob's name is changed to Israel . These traditions of migration and kinship are in them-selves entirely credible, but the detailed accounts of the ancestors Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently doubtful as regards both the internal conditions, which the (late) chronological See also:

• SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. oxfjya, figure, form, from the root axe, seen in exeiv, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.)

scheme ascribes to the first half of the second millennium B.C., and the general circumstances of the life of these strangers in a foreign land . From a variety of independent reasons one is forced to conclude that, whatever historical elements they may contain, the stories of this remote past represent the form which tradition had taken in a very much later age . Opinion is at variance regarding the patriarchal narratives as a whole . To deny their historical character is to reject them as trustworthy accounts of the age to which they are ascribed, and even those scholars who claim that they are essentially historical already go so far as to concede idealization and the possibility or See also:

• PROBABILITY (Lat. probabilis, probable or credible)

probability of later revision . The failure to apprehend historical method has often led to the fallacious See also:

• ARGUMENT

argument that the See also:

• TRUST

trust-worthiness of individual features justifies our accepting the whole, or that the elimination of unhistorical elements will leave an historical residuum . Here and frequently elsewhere in biblical history it is necessary to allow that a genuine historical tradition may be clothed in an unhistorical dress, but since many diverse motives are often concentrated upon one narrative (e.g . Gen. xxxii .

22-32, xxxiv., xxxviii.), the work of internal historical criticism (in view of the scantiness of the evidence) can rarely claim finality . The patriarchal narratives themselves belong to the popular stock of tradition of which only a portion has been preserved . Many of the elements See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)