See also:

• ANDREW (Gr. 'AvBp4as, manly)
• ANDREW, JOHN ALBION (1818-1867)

ANDREW See also:

• ANDREW JOHNSON
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

JOHNSON  .) 291 . Meanwhile the military Reconstruction of the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

South and the organization of the See also:

• NEGRO (from Lat. eager, black)

negro See also:

• VOTE

vote progressed effectively . The party management of the negroes was conducted by " See also:

• CARPET

carpet-baggers," as the See also:

• NORTHERN

Northern b;s,. men who came South to try their fortunes under and "Scala• these new conditions were nicknamed, and by the wags": the See also:

• WHITE
• WHITE, ANDREW DICKSON (1832– )
• WHITE, GILBERT (1720–1793)
• WHITE, HENRY KIRKE (1785-1806)
• WHITE, HUGH LAWSON (1773-1840)
• WHITE, JOSEPH BLANCO (1775-1841)
• WHITE, RICHARD GRANT (1822-1885)
• WHITE, ROBERT (1645-1704)
• WHITE, SIR GEORGE STUART (1835– )
• WHITE, SIR THOMAS (1492-1567)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM ARTHUR (1824--1891)
• WHITE, SIR WILLIAM HENRY (1845– )
• WHITE, THOMAS (1628-1698)
• WHITE, THOMAS (c. 1550-1624)

white See also:

• LOYALISTS

loyalists of the South, to whom was given uetoa the name " scalawags." In the See also:

• WORK

work of See also:

• MARSHAL (med. Lat. marescalcus, from O.H.Ger. marah, horse, and scalc, servant)

marshal- See also:

• LING, PER HENRIK (1776-1839)

ling See also:

• LEAGUE

League, the freedmen's vote for the Republican party See also:

• SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed)

secret See also:

• SOCIETIES, LEARNED

societies like the Loyal League, or See also:

• UNION
• UNION (known locally as Union Hill and officially as Town of Union)

Union League (q.v.), played an important See also:

• PART

part . As the newly enfranchised See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass of politically untrained negroes passed under Northern See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence politically, the See also:

• SOUTHERN

Southern whites See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

drew more 'and more together in most of the former Confederate States, and although they were unable under the existing conditions to take See also:

• CONTROL (Fr. contrdle, older form contre rolle, from Med. Lat. contra-rotulus, a counter roll or copy of a document used to check the original; there is no instance in English of the use of " control " in this, its literal, meaning)

control, they awaited their opportunity . A " Solid South " was forming in which old party divisions gave way to the one dominant antagonism to Republican ascendancy by negro See also:

• SUFFRAGE (Lat. suffragium)

suffrage; and a See also:

• RACE

race antagonism See also:

• DEVELOPED

developed which revealed the fact that underneath the See also:

• SLAVERY

slavery question was the negro question . 292 . Politically the important fact was that the Republicans had rejected the possibility of reviving the old party lines in the South, and had gambled upon the expectation of wielding the See also:

• UNITED

united coloured vote with such leadership and support as might be gained from former Northerners and loyal whites . In the end negro See also:

• RULE

rule failed, as was inevitable when legal disabilities and military force were removed; but the masses of the Southern whites emerged with a See also:

• POWER [WILLIAM GRATTAN] TYRONE (1797-1841)

power which they had not possessed under the old rule of the planting See also:

• ARISTOCRACY (Gr. apuvror, best; «paria, government)

aristocracy . For the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time being, however, negro votes gave control to the Repub. licans . In South Carolina, See also:

• FLORIDA

Florida, See also:

• ALABAMA

Alabama, See also:

• MISSISSIPPI

Mississippi and See also:

• LOUISIANA

Louisiana the negroes were in a See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority; in See also:

• VIRGINIA
• VIRGINIA, or VERGINIA
• VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

Virginia, See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

North Carolina, See also:

• ARKANSAS

Arkansas and See also:

• TEXAS

Texas they were in the minority; while in See also:

• GEORGIA

Georgia the two races were nearly evenly balanced . 293 . The white leaders of the South were divided as to the best means of See also:

• MEETING (from " to meet," to come together, assemble, 0. Eng. metals ; cf. Du. moeten, Swed. mota, Goth. gamotjan, &c., derivatives of the Teut. word for a meeting, seen in O. Eng. Wit, moot, an assembly of the people; cf. witanagemot)

meeting the problem .

Some advocated that those entitled to vote should See also:

• REGISTER

register, and then policy of refrain from the polls, in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to defeat the See also:

• CON

con- the south; stitutions made under negro suffrage, for -the See also:

• LAW
• LAW (0. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi)
• LAW, JOHN (1671—1729)
• LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761)

law the Ku-required them to be ratified by a majority of the Klux Klan. qualified voters . Others would have the white race See also:

• BEAR
• BEAR, BLACK
• BEAR, BROWN
• BEAR, GRIZZLY
• BEAR, ISABELLINE
• BEAR, WHITE

bear no part in the See also:

• PROCESS

process . Societies such as the " Ku-Klux Klan" and the " Knights of the White Camelia " were organized to intimidate or restrain the freedmen . But for the See also:

• PRESENT

present the Republicans carried all before them in the South . Some of the new See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state constitutions imposed severe disfranchisement upon the former dominant class, and before the end of See also:

• JULY

July 1868 all of the former Confederate States, except Virginia, Mississippi and Texas, had ratified the.Fourteenth See also:

• AMENDMENT (through the O. Fr. amender, to correct, from Lat. mendum, a fault)

Amendment, which was proclaimed in effect . By the beginning of 187o these three states had also ratified the amendment, as had McCardle See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

Case . Georgia a second time, because of her doubtful status at the time of her first ratification . 294 . By the summer of 1868 Arkansas, South Carolina, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Louisiana and Florida, having satisfied the requirements of the Reconstruction acts, were entitled to See also:

• REPRESENTATION

representation in See also:

• CONGRESS (Lat. congressus, coming together, from congredi; cum, with, and gradus, step)

Congress . But Georgia did not choose her senators until after the See also:

• ADJOURNMENT (through the French from the Late Lat. adjurnare, to put off until or summon for another day)

adjournment of Congress, and, inasmuch as the state excluded the negro members of the legislature in See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September, Congress on reassembling returned the state to military rule until its submission . Alabama was restored in spite of the fact that her white voters had remained away from the polls in sufficient See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers to prevent a majority of all the voters registered from having ratified the constitution of the state, as the Reconstruction acts had required . The nominating conventions and the See also:

• CAMPAIGN

campaign of 1868 gave interesting See also:

• EVIDENCE (Lat. evidentia, evideri, to appear clearly)

evidence of the trend of See also:

• POLITICAL

political and economic events .

Party lines, which had broken down in the North when all united in saving the Union, were once more reasserting themselves . See also:

• PRESIDENT (Fr. president, from Lat. praesidens, post-Augustan Lat. for praeses, director, ruler, from praesidere, to sit in front of, preside)

President See also:

• JOHNSON, ANDREW
• JOHNSON, ANDREW (1808–1875)
• JOHNSON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742)
• JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824–1906)
• JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796–1876)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573–1659 ?)
• JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781–1850)
• JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784)
• JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1729)
• JOHNSON, SIR WILLIAM (1715–1774)
• JOHNSON, THOMAS

Johnson, who had been elected by the Union Republican party, had found his most effective support among the Democrats . The Republicans turned to See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

General See also:

• GRANT (from A.-Fr. graunter, O. Fr. greanter for creanter, popular Lat. creantare, for credentare, to entrust, Lat. credere, to believe, trust)
• GRANT, ANNE (1755-1838)
• GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1823)
• GRANT, GEORGE MONRO (1835–1902)
• GRANT, JAMES (1822–1887)
• GRANT, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1827–1892)
• GRANT, ROBERT (1814-1892)
• GRANT, SIR ALEXANDER
• GRANT, SIR FRANCIS (1803-1878)
• GRANT, SIR JAMES HOPE (1808–1895)
• GRANT, SIR PATRICK (1804-1895)
• GRANT, U
• GRANT, ULYSSES SIMPSON (1822-1885)

Grant, a Democrat before the outbreak of the See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

war . His popularity with the Republicans was due not only to his military distinction, but also to his See also:

• CALM

calm See also:

• JUDGMENT

judgment in the trying See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period of the struggle between the president and Congress . He was seriously considered by the Democrats until he See also:

• BROKE, or BROOKE, ARTHUR (d. 1563)
• BROKE, SIR PHILIP BOWES VERE, BART

broke with Johnson in the See also:

• STANTON, EDWIN
• STANTON, ELIZABETH CADY (1815-1902)

Stanton See also:

• EPISODE

episode . 295 . The Republican nominating See also:

• CONVENTION (Lat. conventio, an assembly or agreement, from convenire, to come together)
• CONVENTION, THE NATIONAL

convention met on the loth of May 1868, a few days after the failure of the See also:

• IMPEACHMENT (O. Fr. empeahement, empeschement, from em pecher or empescher, to hinder, Late Lat. impedicare, to entangle, pedica, fetter, pes, foot)

impeachment proceedings, and it See also:

• CHOSE (Fr. for " thing ")

chose Grant as See also:

• NATIONAL

National the See also:

• CANDIDATE

candidate for the See also:

• PRESIDENCY

presidency . The See also:

• PLATFORM (Fr. plateforme, i.e. ground plan)

platform Republican Convention; supported the Congressional Reconstruction See also:

• MEASURES

measures . Grant Upon the vital question whether universal negro Nominated suffrage should be placed beyond the power of for the presidency. states to See also:

• REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapeler, rappeler, revoke, re and appeler, appeal)

repeal it by a new constitutional amend- ment, the platform declared: " The See also:

• GUARANTEE (sometimes spelt " guarantie " or " guaranty "; an O. Fr. form of " warrant," from the Teutonic word which appears in German as wahren, to defend or make safe and binding)

guarantee by Congress of equal suffrage to all loyal men at the South was demanded by every See also:

• CONSIDERATION (from Lat. considerare, to look at closely, examine, generally taken to be from con-, and the base seen in sidus, sideris, a star, the word being supposed to be originally an astrological or astronomical term)

consideration of public safety, of gratitude and of See also:

• JUSTICE (Lat. justitia)

justice, and must be maintained; while the question of suffrage in all the loyal states properly belongs to the See also:

• PEOPLE

people of those states." Nowhere in the North was the negro an important See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in the See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population, but the North had shown an unwillingness to apply to itself the doctrines of negro rights which had been imposed upon the South . Between 1865 and 1868 See also:

• CONNECTICUT

Connecticut, See also:

• WISCONSIN (known as " the Badger' state ")
• WISCONSIN, UNIVERSITY OF

Wisconsin, See also:

• MINNESOTA

Minnesota, See also:

• KANSAS (known as the Sunflower State ")

Kansas, See also:

• OHIO

Ohio and See also:

• MICHIGAN
• MICHIGAN, LAKE
• MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Michigan had refused to give the negro the right to vote within their own See also:

• BOUNDS, BEATING THE

bounds, a.nd this See also:

• PLANK

plank was evidence of the unwillingness of the party to make a See also:

• DIRECT

direct issue of universal negro suffrage . Although the platform failed to indicate the future proposals of the Republican leaders on the negro question, on the topics of See also:

• FINANCE

finance and currency it clearly showed that the party was controlled by economic interests which were to exercise increasing influence upon it . It pronounced in favour of See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment of the public See also:

• DEBT (Lat. debitum, a thing owed)

debt, not only according to the See also:

• LETTER (through Fr. lettre from Lat. littera or litera, letter of the alphabet; the origin of the Latin word is obscure; it has probably no connexion with the root of linere, to smear, i.e. with wax, for an inscription with a stilus)

letter but the spirit of the See also:

• LAWS

laws under which it was contracted .

The significance of this See also:

• LAY

lay in its See also:

• CHALLENGE (O. Fr. chalonge, calenge, &c., from Lat. calumnia, originally meaning trickery, from calvi, to deceive, hence a false accusation, a " calumny ")

challenge to the Democratic agitation on the currency question . 296 . It was this question which gave the See also:

• TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798)

tone to the proceedings of the See also:

• DEMOCRACY (Gr. 3np.oKparia, from S)µos, the people, i.e. the commons, and Kparos, rule)

Democracy at their convention in July 1868 . The situation can best be presented by a brief See also:

• REVIEW (Fr. revue, from revoir, to see again, Lat. re and videre)

review of the See also:

• FINANCIAL

financial See also:

• HISTORY

history just preceding the convention . Together with the discussion over political Reconstruction in the South, Congress and the See also:

• ADMINISTRATION (Lat. administrare, to serve)

administration had been obliged to See also:

• DEAL

deal with the reconstruction of debt, See also:

• TAXATION
• TAXATION (from " tax," derived, through the French, from Lat. taxare, to appraise, which again is connected with the same root as tangere, to touch)

taxation and currency in the nation at the See also:

• CLOSE
• CLOSE (from Lat. clausum, shut)
• CLOSE, MAXWELL HENRY (1822-1903)

close of four years of expensive war . At its maximum point the debt had risen to $2,758,000,000, of a complicated variety of forms, and of the See also:

• TOTAL

total less than one-See also:

• HALF

half was funded . The problems of funding, readjustment of taxation, and resumption of specie payments proved to be so complicated with the See also:

• INDUSTRIAL

industrial growth of the nation that they led to issues destined to exert a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long continued influence . 297 . The various war tariffs, passed primarily for the See also:

• SAKE

sake of increased See also:

• REVENUE
• REVENUE (0. Fr. revenu, from revenir, to return)

revenue, had been shaped for See also:

• PROTECTION

protection under the influence of the manufacturing interests, and they Finance; had been framed also with reference to the need of the See also:

• TARIFF (adapted in English from the French; the word comes through the Spanish tarifa, a list or schedule of prices, from the Arabic, ta'rifa, information, an inventory, 'arf, know-ledge)

Tariff; compensating the heavy See also:

• INTERNAL

internal taxes which were Internal imposed upon the manufacturers . When the war Revenue. ended public sentiment demanded See also:

• RELIEF

relief from these heavy burdens, and especially from the irksome internal taxes . The rapidly growing See also:

• GRAIN (derived through the French from Lat. granum, seed, from an Aryan root meaning " to wear down," which also appears in the common Teutonic word " corn ")

grain-raising districts of the See also:

• MIDDLE

Middle See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

West exhibited a lively discontent with the protective tariff, but this did not prevent the passage in 1867 of the See also:

• WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES

Wool and Woollens See also:

• ACT (Lat. actus, actum)

Act, which discriminated in favour of the woollen manufacturers and raised the ad valorem See also:

• DUTY (from " due," that which is owing, O. Fr. deu, dil, past participle of devoir; Lat. debere, debitum; cf. " debt ")

duty on wool . In spite of several large reductions of internal revenue, the national debt was being extinguished with a rapidity that only a prosperous and growing nation could have endured .

298 . The currency question, however, furnished the economic issue which was most debated in the period of Reconstruction . One set of interests aimed at rapidly reducing The the See also:

• VOLUME

volume of the currency by retiring the legal Currency See also:

• TENDER

tender notes, or " See also:

• GREENBACKS

greenbacks," issued during the Question; war, on the ground that they had been provided only becks.,°, as a war measure, that the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country needed a contraction of this currency, and that specie payments woul be hastened by the withdrawal of the greenbacks . The secretary of the See also:

• TREASURY

treasury, See also:

• HUGH
• HUGH, ST

Hugh McCulloch, pressed this policy to the foreground, and desired authority to issue bonds to retire these notes . Another set of interests demanded the retention of the greenbacks, supporting their views by arguments varying according to the degree of radicalism of the speakers . The more moderate, like Senator See also:

• JOHN
• JOHN (1167–1216)
• JOHN (1290-c. 1320)
• JOHN (1296-1346)
• JOHN (1371–1419)
• JOHN (1468-1532)
• JOHN (1801-1873)
• JOHN (Heb. llni')
• JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540)
• JOHN, 4TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (c. 1695-1762)
• JOHN, DON (1545-1578)
• JOHN, DON (1629–1679)
• JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
• JOHN, or HAYS (1513–1571)
• JOHN, THE APOSTLE
• JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF

John See also:

• SHERMAN
• SHERMAN, JOHN (x823-1900)
• SHERMAN, ROGER (1721–1793)

Sherman, of Ohio, who reflected the views of parts of the West, argued that the recuperation of the nation and the rapid increase of business would absorb the existing currency, while See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold would cease to go abroad . Thus, by the increasing See also:

• CREDIT (Lat. credere, to believe)

credit of the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government, specie payment would be automatically resumed, and the holders of currency certificates would convert them into See also:

• COIN
• COIN (older forms of the word are coyne, quoin and coign, all derived through the O. Fr. coing, and cuigne from Lat. cuneus, a wedge)

coin obligations at a See also:

• LOWER

lower See also:

• INTEREST

interest See also:

• RATE

rate . Others wished to use the greenbacks to pay the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal of such of the bonds as did not explicitly specify coin as the See also:

• MEDIUM

medium of payment; the most extreme, so far from contracting the currency by retiring the greenbacks, wished to increase this See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form of See also:

• MONEY

money, while diminishing the circulation of the notes of the national See also:

• BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881)
• BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816–1894)
• BANKS, SIR JOSEPH
• BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805)

banks . The discussion tended to produce a sectional issue with the West against the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

East, and a social issue with bondholders and the creditor class in general arrayed against the less well-to-do . Congress agreed with Secretary McCulloch, and in the Funding Act of 1866 not only provided for converting See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-time securities into long-See also:

• TERM

term bonds, but also for retiring ten million dollars of greenbacks in six months and thereafter not more than four millions monthly . But the agricultural depression of 1866 produced a reaction . Loud demands were made that bonds should be paid in greenbacks instead of coin, that United States securities should be taxed, and the national See also:

• BANK

bank notes suppressed .

In 1868, on the See also:

• EVE

eve of the presidential campaign, Congress, alarmed by the extent of these popular demands, suspended the process of contraction by decisive majorities in both houses, after See also:

• FORTY

forty million dollars in greenbacks had been retired by the secretary of the treasury . 299 . Ohio was the See also:

• STORM (in O. Eng..storm, and so in Du. and Low Ger.; in O. H. Ger. and mod. Ger. Sturm; the root is probably that seen in " stir," to rouse, move, disturb, cf. Ger. storen)
• STORM, THEODOR WOLDSEN (1817-1888)

storm centre of the agitation . The " Ohio See also:

• IDEA (Gr. Ibia, connected with i&eiv, to see; cf. Lat. species from specere, to look at)

idea " that greenbacks should become the accepted currency of the country was championed by See also:

• GEORGE
• GEORGE, 8TH MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE (1787-1876)
• GEORGE, HENRY (1839—1897)
• GEORGE, LAKE
• GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303)

George The "ohio H . See also:

• PENDLETON, EDMUND (1721—1803)
• PENDLETON, GEORGE HUNT (1825—1889)

Pendleton, of that state, and his See also:

• FRIENDS, SOCIETY
• FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF

friends now idea." brought him forward for the Democratic nomination for president on this issue . In the national convention of that party they succeeded in incorporating into the platform their demands that there should be one currency for the government and the people, the bondholder and the producer, and that where the obligations of the government did not expressly provide for payment in coin, they should be paid in lawful money (i.e. greenbacks) of the United States . 300 . But another wing of the Democratic party desired to Six Southern States Re-stored to the Union . make prominent the issue against the Reconstruction measures of the Republicans . This wing added to the platform and See also:

• DECLARATION (from Lat. declarare, to make fully clear, clams)

declaration that these acts were unconstitutional and void, and the demand that the Southern states should be restored to their former rights and given control over their own elective See also:

• FRANCHISE (from 0. Fr. franchise, freedom, franc, free)

franchise . 301 . Although the followers of Pendleton had shaped the financial plank of the platform, they could not nominate their National See also:

• LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831– )

leader .

The opposition was at first divided between Democratk the various candidates . New See also:

• YORK
• YORK (HOUSE OF)
• YORK, EDMUND OF LANGLEY, DUKE OF (1341-1402)
• YORK, EDWARD
• YORK, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS, DUKE OF (1763-1827)
• YORK, RICHARD, DUKE

York, which feared Convention; the effect upon the conservative financial interests See also:

• SEYMOUR
• SEYMOUR, HORATIO (1810-1886)
• SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR
• SEYMOUR, THOMAS

Seymour of the East if Pendleton were nominated, attempted Nominated to break the deadlock by proposing an Ohio See also:

• MAN
• MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona)

man, for the Presidency . See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

Chief Justice See also:

• CHASE
• CHASE, SALMON PORTLAND (1808-1873)
• CHASE, SAMUEL (1741–1811)
• CHASE, WILLIAM MERRITT (1849– )

Chase . But eager as Chase was for the presidency he had flatly refused to abandon some efforts to restore See also:

• HARMONY (Gr. dpµovia, a concord of musical sounds, dpA'ew to join; &plan midi (sc. TeXvil)

harmony, such as the repeal of the " See also:

• IRON [symbol Fe, atomic weight 55.85 (0=16)]

iron-the views which he held in favour of negro suffrage . Ohio i clad See also:

• OATH (0. Eng. ddh)

oath " for ex-Confederates, in 1871, and the passage of the was, therefore, able to retaliate by stampeding the convention General See also:

• AMNESTY (from the Gr. &µvrly-ria, oblivion)

Amnesty Act of 1872 . The North was becoming restive under the long continued use of the Federal military See also:

• ARM (a common Teutonic word; the Indo-European root is ar, to join or fit; cf. the Lat. armus, shoulder, and the plural word arma, weapons, Gr. apphs, joint, and the reduplicated apapilKSV, to join)

arm within state See also:

• BORDERS, THE

borders in time of See also:

• PEACE
• PEACE, BREACH OF THE

peace, and especially with the results of negro rule under " carpet-bag" leadership . 305 . In any case the cost of rehabilitating the public See also:

• WORKS

works and providing See also:

• EDUCATION

education and the political and judicial institutions which should equally apply to the hitherto non-political class of the blacks, would gac See also:

• GAME

game o of f e Re . have been a heavy one . But the legislatures, construction especially of Louisiana, South Carolina, See also:

• TENNESSEE

Tennessee, Govern-Arkansas and Alabama, plunged into an extrava- ments. gance made possible by the fact that the legislatures contained but few representatives who paid considerable taxes, and that they were controlled by Northern men who were some-times corrupt, and often indifferent to the burdens laid upon the propertied classes of the South . In 1872 it was estimated that the public debts of the eleven reconstructed states amounted to nearly $132,000,000, two-thirds of which was composed of guarantees to corporations, chiefly railway companies . Legislative expenses were grotesquely extravagant, the coloured members in some states engaging in a saturnalia of corrupt See also:

• EXPENDITURE

expenditure .

Gradually this alienated from the so-called See also:

• RADICAL (Lat. radix, a root)

Radical party the support of Southern whites, because they resented the concessions of the carpet-bag leaders to the negro vote, because they suffered from the See also:

• BURDEN, or BURTHEN

burden of taxation, and above all because race See also:

• FRICTION (from Lat. fricare, to rub)

friction increased, See also:

• DRAWING

drawing the whites together, in spite of former antagonisms between localities and classes . 306 . By 1872 a See also:

• COALITION (Lat. coalitio, the verbal substantive of coalescere, to grow together)

coalition had been formed under the name of Conservatives . But the control of electoral machinery in the strongly centralized state executives chosen by negro votes, and See also:

• COERCION (from Lat. coercere, to restrain)
• COERCION, CONTRACT

coercion by the Federal authority, still upheld Republican rule in various Southern states . Virginia and North Carolina were practically bankrupt, the capitals of Louisiana, Arkansas and Alabama, where See also:

• RIVAL

rival state See also:

• OFFICERS

officers claimed See also:

• POSSESSION
• POSSESSION (Lat. possessio, possidere, to possess)

possession, were occupied by Federal troops, and many of the governments were so corrupt that only the contemporaneous revelations of rottenness in New York See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

City and in certain branches of the Federal government afford a parallel . 307 . It was a time of lax public morals after war, which was See also:

• ILL

ill suited to the difficult experiment of transferring political power to a race recently enslaved . Only the strong arm of the Federal authority sufficed to prevent the whites of the South from overthrowing a See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of things which it was impossible under See also:

• AMERICAN

American political ideas permanently to maintain . 308 . An important economic reorganization was in progress in the South . White districts were recovering from the war and were becoming the productive See also:

• COTTON
• COTTON (Fr. coton; from Arab. qutun)
• COTTON, CHARLES (163o–1687)
• COTTON, GEORGE EDWARD LYNCH (1813–1866)
• COTTON, JOHN (1585–1652)
• COTTON, SIR ROBERT BRUCE

cotton areas by Economk the use of fertilizers and by the more intelligent Changes in white labour . Cities were rising, and the mines and the south. manufactures of the southern Appalachians were developing .

In the See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt, or region of denser negro See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement, the old centres of cotton See also:

• PRODUCTION (Lat. productionem, from producere, to pro-duce)

production and the citadels of the Southern political aristocracy, the blacks became See also:

• TENANT (from Lat. tenere, to hold)

tenant farmers, or workers on shares, but the white See also:

• FARMER, RICHARD (1735–1787)

farmer in other areas raised his cotton at less cost than the planter who lived in the See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich soils of the former cotton areas . The effective and just direction of negro labour was a difficult problem and was aggravated b' 1866 . See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

Jurisdiction was given to the Federal courts to maintain the equality of the races before the law . The underlying See also:

• DOCTRINE

doctrine of the acts was that the amendments guaranteed the freedmen against invasion of their rights by the acts of individuals as well as by explicit legislation of the states . In the next two years (1871 and 1872) acts were passed providing for effective Federal supervision of Congressional elections, and the " Ku-Klux Acts" (1871 and 1872) still further in-creased the power of the Federal courts to enforce the amendments and authorized the president to suspend the See also:

• WRIT (O. Eng. gewrit, writ, from writan, to write)

writ of habeas corpus and use military force to suppress the public disorders occasioned by the attempts to intimidate negro voters . But these stern measures were accompanied by in favour of Horatio Seymour, of New York, chairman of the convention . As the war See also:

• GOVERNOR (from the Fr. gouverneur, from gouverner, O. Fr. governer, Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, to direct, guide)

governor of his state he had been a consistent critic of the extremes to which the Federal administration had carried its See also:

• INTERPRETATION (from Lat. interpretari, to expound, explain, inter pres, an agent, go-between, interpreter; inter, between, and the root pret-, possibly connected with that seen either in Greek 4 p4'ew, to speak, or irpa-rrecv, to do)

interpretation of the war power . For See also:

• VICE

vice-president the convention nominated See also:

• FRANCIS
• FRANCIS (FRarrcols) OF SALES, ST (1567-1622)
• FRANCIS (Lat. Franciscus, Ital. Francesco, Span. Francisco, Fr. Francois, Ger. Franz)
• FRANCIS, SIR PHILIP (174o-1818)

Francis P . See also:

• BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON (1791–1876)
• BLAIR, HUGH (1718-1800)
• BLAIR, JAMES (1656`1743)
• BLAIR, ROBERT (1699—1746)

Blair, jun., of See also:

• MISSOURI

Missouri, who had denounced the unconstitutionality of the Reconstruction acts in unmeasured terms . 302 . But the popularity of Grant in the North, together with the Republican strength in the states of the South which had been reconstructed under negro suffrage, gave orant Elected. an easy victory to the Republicans in the See also:

• ELECTION
• ELECTION (from Lat. eligere, to pick out)

election of 1868 . Seymour carried only See also:

• DELAWARE

Delaware, New See also:

• JERSEY
• JERSEY, EARLS OF

Jersey, New York and See also:

• OREGON

Oregon, of the North; and See also:

• MARYLAND

Maryland, See also:

• KENTUCKY

Kentucky, Georgia and Louisiana of the South .

Tennessee, and five of the former Confederate States, upon which negro suffrage had been imposed under military Reconstruction (North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Alabama and Arkansas) voted for Grant . Virginia, Mississippi and Texas had not yet been restored . 303 . This decisive victory and the knowledge that it had been won by the See also:

• ADVANTAGE

advantage of the negro vote in the restored states led the Republican leaders to ignore their See also:

• RECENT

recent e Amedmndment• platform declaration in regard to negro suffrage . Shortly after Congress assembled propositions were made to See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place the freedman's right to vote beyond the power of the states to See also:

• CHANGE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. cambium, cambiare, to barter; the ultimate derivation is probably from the root which appears in the Gr. «a urmu', to bend)

change . To do this by constitutional enactment it was necessary to make the See also:

• PROVISION (Lat. provisio)

provision universal, and Congress, therefore, submitted for ratification the Fifteenth Amendment declaring that " the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of race, color or previous condition of See also:

• SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from service, to serve)

servitude." Congress was given power to enforce the amendment by appropriate legislation . By the 3oth of See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March 187o the amendment had been ratified; but it is doubtful whether this could have been accomplished by legislatures chosen on the issue . As it was, the states of Virginia, Mississippi, Texas and Georgia were required to ratify it as a condition of their readmittance to representation in Congress, and the three former states, having been permitted to vote separately on the See also:

• OBNOXIOUS (Lat. obnoxiosus, from ob, over, against, and noxa, harm)

obnoxious provisions of their constitutions in regard to the disfranchisement of former Confederates, rejected those clauses, adopted the Fifteenth Amendment and were restored in 1870 . Georgia Re- Georgia, after a new experience of military rule, admitted, likewise ratified the amendment, and her repre- sentatives were likewise admitted to Congress . 304 . As soon as the Fifteenth Amendment was proclaimed in effect, and the military governments of the South were New Con- superseded, the dominant party proceeded to enact gressionai measures of enforcement . These seemed especially measures. necessary in view of the fact that, partly by intimidation of the coloured vote, Louisiana (1868) and Tennessee (1869) broke away from the Republican See also:

• COLUMN (Lat. columna)

column; while in the election of 187o Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia and Alabama went Democratic .

The enforcement legislation of 187o provided penalties for violating the Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments and re-enacted the See also:

• CIVIL

Civil Rights Act of the political agitation which intensified race friction . It became evident that there was a negro problem as well as a slavery question, and that the North was unable to solve it . 309 . In the meantime important See also:

• FOREIGN

foreign relations had been dealt with by Secretary See also:

• WILLIAM
• WILLIAM (1143-1214)
• WILLIAM (1227-1256)
• WILLIAM (1J33-1584)
• WILLIAM (A.S. Wilhelm, O. Norse Vilhidlmr; O. H. Ger. Willahelm, Willahalm, M. H. Ger. Willehelm, Willehalm, Mod.Ger. Wilhelm; Du. Willem; O. Fr. Villalme, Mod. Fr. Guillaume; from " will," Goth. vilja, and " helm," Goth. hilms, Old Norse hidlmr, meaning
• WILLIAM (c. 1130-C. 1190)
• WILLIAM, 13TH

William H . See also:

• SEWARD, ANNA (1747-1809)
• SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY (180r-1872)

Seward, under Johnson, Foreign and by Secretary See also:

• HAMILTON
• HAMILTON (GRAND or ASHUANIPI)
• HAMILTON, ALEXANDER (1757-1804)
• HAMILTON, ANTHONY, or ANTOINE (1646-1720)
• HAMILTON, ELIZABETH (1758–1816)
• HAMILTON, EMMA, LADY (c. 1765-1815)
• HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1831)
• HAMILTON, JAMES HAMILTON, 1ST DUKE OF (1606-1649)
• HAMILTON, JOHN (c. 1511–1571)
• HAMILTON, MARQUESSES AND DUKES OF
• HAMILTON, PATRICK (1504-1528)
• HAMILTON, ROBERT (1743-1829)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1730-1803)
• HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM ROWAN (1805-1865)
• HAMILTON, THOMAS (1789-1842)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM (1704-1754)
• HAMILTON, WILLIAM GERARD (1729-1796)

Hamilton See also:

• FISH (O. Eng. fist, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch visch, Ger. Fisch, Goth. fisks, cognate with the Lat. piscis)
• FISH, HAMILTON (1808-1893)

Fish, under Grant . Not Relations. only were many See also:

• TREATIES

treaties of See also:

• COMMERCE
• COMMERCE (Lat. commercium, from, cum, together, and rnerx, merchandise)

commerce and See also:

• EXTRADITION (Lat. cx, out, and traditio, handing over)

extradition, including one with See also:

• CHINA

China, negotiated by Seward, but he also brought about a See also:

• SOLUTION (from Lat. solvere, to loosen, dissolve)

solution of more important See also:

• DIPLOMATIC

diplomatic problems . The relations of the United States with See also:

• FRANCE
• FRANCE, ANATOLE (1844– )

France and See also:

• ENGLAND
• ENGLAND, THE CHURCH OF

England had been strained in the course of the war, by the evident friendliness of the governments of France and England for the Scuth . Not only had See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon III. been inclined to recognize the Confederacy, but he had also taken advantage of the war to throw into See also:

• MEXICO
• MEXICO (Span. Mejico, or Mexico,)
• MEXICO, FEDERAL DISTRICT OF
• MEXICO, GULF OF

Mexico a See also:

• FRENCH
• FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850– )
• FRENCH, NICHOLAS (1604-1678)

French See also:

• ARMY
• ARMY (from Fr. armee, Lat. armata)

army in support of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• MAXIMILIAN
• MAXIMILIAN (1832—1867)

Maximilian . The temptation to use force while American military See also:

• PRESTIGE

prestige was high appealed even to General Grant; but Seward by See also:

• FIRM

firm and cautious Maximilian. diplomatic pressure induced France to withdraw her troops in 1867; the power of Maximilian collapsed, and the United States was not compelled to See also:

• APPEAL

appeal to arms in support of the See also:

• MONROE
• MONROE, JAMES (1758-1831)

Monroe Doctrine . See also:

• RUSSIA
• RUSSIA (Rossiya)

Russia's friendly attitude through-out the war was signalized by her offer to sell See also:

• ALASKA

Alaska to the United States in 1867 . Seward promptly accepted it and the Alaska . treaty was ratified by the See also:

• SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. 'vos; the same element appears in senor, seigneur, seneschal)

Senate and the See also:

• PURCHASE

purchase money ($7,200,000) was voted by the reluctant See also:

• HOUSE
• HOUSE (O. Eng. hiss, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Dut. huis, Ger. Haus; in Gothic it is only found in gudhiss, a temple; it may be ultimately connected with the root of " hide," conceal)

House, which saw little in the acquisition to commend it .

Later years revealed it as one of the nation's treasure houses, particularly of gold and See also:

• COAL

coal . 310 . With England affairs were even more threatening than with France . Confederate cruisers (notably the " Alabama "), The built in England and permitted by the See also:

• NEGLIGENCE (Lat. negligentia, from negligere, to neglect, literally " not to pick up ")

negligence of "Alabama"the See also:

• BRITISH

British government to go to See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, had nearly claims. swept the American See also:

• MERCHANT (O. Fr. marcheant, modern marchand; from Lat. mercari, to trade, merx, goods, merchandise)

merchant marine from the ocean . Unsettled questions of boundary and the See also:

• FISHERIES

fisheries aggravated the ill feeling, and England's refusal in 1865 to arbitrate made a serious situation . Prolonged negotiations followed a change of attitude of England with regard to See also:

• ARBITRATION (Lat. arbitrari, to examine or judge)
• ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL

arbitration, and in 187o President Grant recommended to Congress that the United States should pay the claims for See also:

• DAMAGES (through O. Fr. damage, mod. Fr. dommage, from Lat. damnum, loss)

damages of the Confederate cruisers, and thus assume them against England . However, in 1871, the treaty of See also:

• WASHINGTON
• WASHINGTON (or WASHINGTON COURT HOUSE)
• WASHINGTON, BOOKER TALIAFERRO (c. 1859– )
• WASHINGTON, BUSHROD (1762-1829)
• WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732-1799)

Washington was negotiated under Secretary Fish, by the terms of which England expressed regret for the See also:

• ESCAPE (in mid. Eng. eschape or escape, from the O. Fr. eschapper, modern echapper, and escaper, low Lat. escapium, from ex, out of, and cappa, cape, cloak; cf. for the sense development the Gr. iichueoOat, literally to put off one's clothes, hence to sli

escape of the cruisers and for their depredations, and provided for arbitration of the fisheries, the north-western boundary, and the " Alabama " claims . Senator See also:

• SUMNER, CHARLES (1811--1874)
• SUMNER, CHARLES RICHARD (1790-1874)
• SUMNER, EDWIN VOSE (1797-1863)
• SUMNER, JOHN BIRD (1780-1862)
• SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM (1840-1910)

Sumner had given fiery expression to demands for indirect damage done by the destruction of our merchant marine and our commerce, and for the expenses of prolonging the war . For a time this so aroused the passions of the two nations as to endanger a solution . But Sumner, who quarrelled with the president, was deposed from the chairmanship of the See also:

• COMMITTEE (from commute, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of commettre, Lat. committere, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent comite is derived from the Eng.)

committee on foreign relations, and Secretary Fish so arranged matters that the See also:

• GENEVA
• GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginevra, Late Lat. Gebenna, though Genava in good Latin)
• GENEVA, LAKE OF

Geneva arbitration tribunal ruled these indirect claims out . Thus limited, the case of the United States was victorious, the tribunal awarding damages against See also:

• GREAT

Great See also:

• BRITAIN (Gr. Hperavuml vi7vot, Bperravia; Lat. Britannia, rarely Britannia)

Britain to the amount of $15,500,000 . Two months later the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German emperor gave to the United States the dissan /uan See also:

• ISLA, JOSE FRANCISCO DE (1703-1781)

Isla puted north-west boundary, including the See also:

• SAN

San Juan nd. See also:

• ISLAND (O.E. ieg =isle, +land')

island in See also:

• PUGET, PIERRE (1622-1694)

Puget See also:

• SOUND
• SOUND, THE (Danish Oresund)

Sound .

The fisheries controversy was not settled until 1877 . 311 . In the West Indies also important questions were presented . Seward had negotiated a treaty of purchase of the Danish Danish West Indies, but the Senate refused to ratify it, nor West Indies; did Grant's See also:

• ATTEMPT (Lat. adtemptare, attentare, to try)

attempt to acquire Santo Domingo meet santo with a different See also:

• FATE

fate at the hands of that See also:

• BODY

body (1870) . Domingo . In See also:

• CUBA (the aboriginal name)

Cuba another insurrection was in progress . Secretary Fish " See also:

• PIGEON

pigeon-holed " a See also:

• PROCLAMATION (Lat. proclamare, to make public by announcement)

proclamation of President Grant recognizing the Cubans as belligerents, and secured a policy of See also:

• NEUTRALITY

neutrality which endured even the See also:

• SHOCK, or COLLAPSE

shock of the " Virginius affair " in 1873, when fifty of the men of the filibustering steamer flying the American See also:

• FLAG (or " FLAGGE," a common Teutonic word in this sense, but apparently first recorded in English)

flag were shot by the Spanishauthorities (see See also:

• SANTIAGO, or SANTIAGO DE CHILE

SANTIAGO, CUBA) . It was shown that the See also:

• VESSEL (O. Fr. vaissel, from a rare Lat. vascellum, dim. of vas, vase, urn)

vessel had no right to the flag . Negotiations about an isthmian See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal resulted only in a treaty with The "Vlr-See also:

• NICARAGUA

Nicaragua in 1868 giving to the United States a sinius" right of way across the See also:

• ISTHMUS (Gr.io0pbs, neck)

isthmus and in provisions for Affair . a government survey of the See also:

• PANAMA

Panama route . Foreign relations in this period were chiefly significant in that they were con-ducted in a spirit of See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint and that peace was preserved . 312 .

It was in the See also:

• FIELD (a word common to many West German languages, cf. Ger. Feld, Dutch veld, possibly cognate with O.E. f olde, the earth, and ultimately with root of the Gr. irAaror, broad)
• FIELD, CYRUS WEST (1819-1892)
• FIELD, DAVID DUDLEY (18o5-1894)
• FIELD, EUGENE (1850-1895)
• FIELD, FREDERICK (18o1—1885)
• FIELD, HENRY MARTYN (1822-1907)
• FIELD, JOHN (1782—1837)
• FIELD, MARSHALL (183 1906)
• FIELD, NATHAN (1587—1633)
• FIELD, STEPHEN JOHNSON (1816-1899)
• FIELD, WILLIAM VENTRIS FIELD, BARON (1813-1907)

field of domestic concerns, in economic and social development, that the most significant tendencies appeared . The old issues were already diminishing in importance before the other aspect of Reconstruction which came from the revived expansion of the nation toward the West and the new forms taken by the development of American industrial society .. 313 . The Republican party, following the traditions of the Whigs, was especially responsive to the demands of the creditor class, who demanded legislation to conserve their interests . Its victory in 1868 was signalized by the passage in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of the following See also:

• YEAR

year of an act pledging the faith of the United States to pay in coin or its See also:

• EQUIVALENT

equivalent all the obligations of the United States, except in cases where the law authorizing the issue had expressly provided otherwise . In 187o and 1871 refunding acts were passed, providing for the issue of bonds to the total amount of $1,800,000,000, one billion of which was to run for See also:

• THIRTY

thirty years at 4% . This See also:

• ABANDONMENT (Fr. abandonnement, from abandonner, to abandon, relinquish; abandonner was originally equivalent to mettred banddn, to leave to the jurisdiction, i.e. of another, bandon being from Low Latin bandum, bannum, order, decree, " ban ")

abandonment of the doctrine of See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early convertibility was made in order to render the bonds acceptable to capitalists, but in fact they soon went to a See also:

• PREMIUM (Lat. praemium, profit, reward, prae+emere, to buy)

premium of over 25% . Long before their maturity the government had a surplus, but although it could then See also:

• BORROW, GEORGE HENRY (18o3-1881)

borrow at 2i-% these bonds could not be retired . While the legislature was thus scrupulous of the credit of the nation and responsive to the views of See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)