JOPVA  Y h~ilika rnm el-H ACn13 Om r-Ra as Di See also:

• BAN

ban.01000 h ,.sr-aa ,nand rE~7 1 -- ,";k p W 5 b I'I'r/M Tell el M 3- e1 li I4 .Jer fIna .. ~, . AA E (.•See also:

• ARAD

Arad ARpE ,JCbalasab A343o ninoeo~°,a BLong . E . 35 of GreenwVth~` El b D Re rAbil El-Kul rang cs-SA GATn' by the See also:

• OFFICERS

officers of the See also:

• PALESTINE

Palestine Exploration Fund . A See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• DEAL

deal of See also:

• WORK

work has been done by individual travellers, but the material for a full description of its See also:

• PHYSICAL

physical See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character is as yet lacking . Two See also:

• GREAT

great See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers, the Yarmuk (Hieromax) and the Zerka (Jbbok), See also:

• DIVIDE

divide Eastern Palestine into three sections, namely Hauran (See also:

• BASHAN

BASHAN, q.v.) with the Jaulan See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west of it; See also:

• JEBEL (plur. jibed)

Jebel Ajlun (See also:

• GILEAD (i.e. " hard " or " rugged," a name sometimes used, both in earlier and in later writers, to denote the whole of the territory occupied by the Israelites eastward of Jordan, extending from the Arnon to the southern base of Hermon (Dent. xxxiv. 1; J

GILEAD, q.v.); and the Belk'a (the See also:

• SOUTHERN

southern portion of Gilead and the See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient territory of the tribe of See also:

• REUBEN

Reuben) . The latter extends southward to the Mojib, which, as we have already seen, is the southern boundary of Eastern Palestine . It is a See also:

• MATTER

matter of dispute whether Hauran should be included within Palestine proper, accepting its See also:

• DEFINITION (Lat. definitio, from de-finire, to set limits to, describe)

definition as the " ancient See also:

• HEBREW

Hebrew territory." It is a large volcanic region, entirely covered with See also:

• LAVA

lava and other igneous rocks . Two remarkable rows of these run in lines from See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north to See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south, through the region of the Jaulan parallel to the See also:

• GHOR, or GHUR

Ghor, and from a See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long distance are conspicuous features in the landscape . The See also:

• SOIL

soil is fertile, and there are many remains of ancient See also:

• WEALTH

wealth and See also:

• CIVILIZATION

civilization scattered over its See also:

• SURFACE

surface . South of the Yarmuk the formation is Cretaceous, Hauran See also:

• BASALT

basalt being found only in the eastern portion .

That region is much more mountainous than Hauran . South of the Zerka the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country culminates in Jebel 'See also:

• OSTIA

Ostia, a See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak of Jebel Jil'ad (" the See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain of Gilead "), 3596 ft. high . From this point southward the country assumes the See also:

• APPEARANCE (from Lat. apparere, to appear)

appearance which is See also:

• FAMILIAR (through the Fr. familier, from Lat. familiaris, of or belonging to the familia, family)

familiar to those who have visited See also:

• JERUSALEM (Heb. ^S0-r, Yerushalaim, pronounced as a dual)
• JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672)

Jerusalem—an elevated See also:

• PLATEAU (a French term, older platel, for a flat piece of wood, metal, &c., from plat, flat)
• PLATEAU, JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND (1801-1883)

plateau, bounded on the west by the precipitous cliffs known as the mountains of See also:

• MOAB

Moab, with but a few peaks, such as Jebel Shihan (2781 ft.) and Jebel Neba (See also:

• NEBO, or NABU (" the proclaimer ")

Nebo, 2643 ft.), conspicuous above the level of the See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge by See also:

• REASON (Lat. ratio, through French raison)

reason of See also:

• SUPERIOR

superior height . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest rocks consist of See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and schist, penetrated by dikes and bosses of See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• SYENITE

syenite, See also:

• PORPHYRY (IlopcPisptos) (A.D. 233-c. 304)

porphyry and other intrusive rocks . All of these are pre-Carboniferous in See also:

• AGE (Fr. age, through late Lat. aetaticum, from aetas)

age and most of them probably belong to the Archean See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period . They are generally concealed by later deposits, but are exposed to view along the eastern margin of the See also:

• WADI

Wadi Araba, at the See also:

• FOOT

foot of the plateau of See also:

• EDOM

Edom . Similar rocks occur also at one or two places in the See also:

• DESERT

desert of et-Tih, while towards the south they attain a greater See also:

• EXTENSION (Lat. ex, out ; tendere, to stretch)

extension, forming nearly the whole of See also:

• SINAI

Sinai and of the hills on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the Gulf of See also:

• AKABA, GULF OF

Akaba . These ancient rocks, which See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form the See also:

• FOUNDATION (Lat. fundatio, from fundare, to found)

foundation of the country, are overlaid unconformably by a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of conglomerates and sandstones, generally unfossiliferous and often red or See also:

• PURPLE

purple in See also:

• COLOUR (Lat. color, connected with celare, to hide, the root meaning, therefore, being that of a covering)

colour, very similar in character to the Nubian See also:

• SANDSTONE

sandstone of Upper See also:

• EGYPT

Egypt . In the midst of this series there is an inconstant See also:

• BAND

band of fossiliferous See also:

• LIMESTONE

limestone, which has been found in the Wadi Nasb and at other places on the southern border of et-Tih, and also along the western escarpment of the Edom plateau . The fossils include Syringopora, Zaphrentis, Productus, Spirifer, &c., and belong to the Carboniferous . The sandstone which lies below the limestone is also, no doubt, of Carboniferous age; but the sandstone above is conformably over-laid by Upper Cretaceous beds and is generally referred to the See also:

• LOWER

Lower Cretaceous . No unconformity, however, has yet been detected anywhere in the sandstone series, and in the See also:

• ABSENCE (Lat. absentia)

absence of fossils the upper sandstone may represent any period from the Carboniferous to the Cretaceous .

The Upper Cretaceous is represented by limestones with bands of chert, and contains See also:

• AMMONITES

Ammonites, Baculites, Hippurites and other fossils . It covers by far the greater See also:

• PART

part of Palestine, capping the table-lands of Moab and Edom, and forming most of the high See also:

• LAND

land between the See also:

• JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sheri'a, the watering-place)
• JORDAN, CAMILLE (1771—1821)
• JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762—1816)
• JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?–1685)
• JORDAN, WILHELM (1819–1904)

Jordan and the Mediterranean . It is overlaid towards the west by similar limestones, which contain nummulites and belong to the See also:

• EOCENE (Gr. *In, dawn, icauvos, recent)

Eocene period; and these are followed near the See also:

• COAST (from Lat. costa, a rib, side)

coast by the calcareous sandstone of Philistia, which is referred by See also:

• HULL
• HULL (in O.Eng. hulu, from helan, to cover, cf. Ger. Hiille, covering)
• HULL (officially KINGSTON-UPON-HULL)
• HULL, ISAAC (1775-1843)

Hull to the Upper Eocene . Lava flows of basic character, belonging to the See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary period, See also:

• COVER (from the Fr. convert, from couvrir, to cover, Lat. cooperire)

cover extensive areas in Jaulan and Hauran; and smaller patches occur in the land of Moab and also west of the Jordan, especially near the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

Sea of Gennesareth . Of See also:

• RECENT

Recent deposits the most interesting are the raised beaches near the coast and the terraces of the Jordan-Araba depression . The latter indicate that at one period nearly the whole of this depression was filled with See also:

• WATER

water up to a level somewhat above that of the Mediterranean . The See also:

• GEOLOGICAL

geological structure of the country is very See also:

• SIMPLE

simple in its broad features, but of exceptional See also:

• INTEREST

interest . In See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general the stratified deposits See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie nearly See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat and in See also:

• REGULAR

regular conformable See also:

• SUCCESSION (Lat. successio, from succedere, to follow after)

succession, the lowest resting upon the See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of ancient crystalline rocks . There is, however, a slight See also:

• DIP (Old Eng. dyppan, connected with the common Teutonic root seen in " deep ")

dip towards the west, so that the newest deposits lie near the coast . Moreover, along the eastern side of the Jordan-Araba valley there is a great See also:

• FAULT (Mid. Eng. faute, through the French, from the popular Latin use of fallere, to fail; the originallof the Latin being replaced in English in the 15th century)

fault, and on the eastern side of this fault the whole series of rocks stands at a much higher level than on the west . Consequently, west of the Jordan almost the whole country is formed of the newer beds (Upper Cretaceous and later), while east of the Jordan the older rocks, sometimes down to the Archean floor, are exposed at the foot of the plateau . The western margin of the valley is possibly defined by another fault which has not yet been detected; but in any See also:

• CASE
• CASE, JOHN (d. 1600)

case it is clear that the great depression owes its extraordinary See also:

• DEPTH

depth to faulting .

A See also:

• LINE

line of depressions of similar character has been traced by E . See also:

• SUESS, EDUARD (1831– )

Suess as far south as See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

Lake See also:

• NYASA

Nyasa.' ' See Lortet, La Mer Morte (See also:

• PARIS
• PARIS (also called ALEXANDROS)
• PARIS, ALEXIS PAULIN (1800-x881)
• PARIS, BRUNO PAULIN GASTON (1839-1903)
• PARIS, FRANCOIS DE (169o-1727)
• PARIS, LOUIS PHILIPPE ALBERT
• PARIS, TREATIES OF (1814-1815)

Paris, 1877) ; E . Hull, See also:

• MOUNT, WILLIAM SIDNEY (1807-1868)

Mount Seir, Sinai and Western Palestine (See also:

• LONDON

London, 1885) ; and Memoir on the See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—Palestine belongs to the sub-tropical See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone: at the summer See also:

• SOLSTICE (Lat. solstitium, from sal, sun, and sistere, to stand still)

solstice the See also:

• SUN
• SUN (0. Eng. sonne, Ger. sonne. Fr. soleil, Lat. sol, Gr. ijXior, from which comes helio- in various English compounds)

sun is ten degrees south of the See also:

• ZENITH (from the Arabic)

zenith . The length of the See also:

• DAY (O. Eng. dreg, Ger. Tag; according to the New English Dictionary, " in no way related to the Lat. dies")
• DAY, JOHN (1574-1640?)
• DAY, THOMAS (1748-1789)

day ranges from ten to fourteen See also:

• HOURS, CANONICAL

hours . The great variety of See also:

• ALTITUDE (Lat. altitudo, from altus, high)

altitude and of surface characteristics gives rise to a considerable number of See also:

• LOCAL

local See also:

• CLIMATIC

climatic peculiarities . On the maritime-See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain the mean See also:

• ANNUAL

annual temperature is 70° F., the normal extremes being about 500 to about 90° . The See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest ripens about a fortnight earlier than among the mountains . Citrons and oranges flourish, as do melons and palms: the latter do not See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

fruit abundantly, but this is less the fault of climate than of carelessness in fertilization . The rainfall is rather lower than among the mountains . In the mountainous regions the mean annual temperature is about 62°, but there is a great range of variation . In See also:

• WINTER, JOHN STRANGE
• WINTER, PETER (c. 1755-1825)

winter there are often several degrees of See also:

• FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost, from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch, vriezcn, Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat. pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal, Sans
• FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810–1877)

frost, though See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow very rarely lies for more than a day or two . In summer the thermometer occasionally registers as much as oo° in the shade, or even a degree or two more: this however is exceptional, and 80°-90° is a more normal maximum for the See also:

• YEAR

year .

The rainfall is about 28 in., sometimes less, and in exceptional years as much as to in. in excess of this figure has been registered . The See also:

• VINE

vine, fig and See also:

• OLIVE (Olea europaea)

olive grow well in this region . The climate of the Ghor, again, is different . Here the thermometer may rise as high as 130° . The rainfall is scanty, but as no civilized See also:

• PERSON, OFFENCES AGAINST THE

person inhabits the southern end of the Jordan valley throughout the year, and it has hitherto proved impossible to establish self-registering See also:

• INSTRUMENTS

instruments, no systematic meteorological observations have been taken . In Eastern Palestine there is even a greater range of temperature; the loftier heights are covered in winter with snow . The thermometer may range within twenty-four hours from freezing-point to 80° . The See also:

• RAINY, ROBERT (1826-1906)

rainy See also:

• SEASON (0. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as particularly the season of the year)

season begins about the end of See also:

• NOVEMBER (Lat. novem, nine)

November, usually with a heavy thunderstorm: the See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain at this part of the year is the " former rain " of the Old Testament . The See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth, baked hard by the summer See also:

• HEAT (0. E. haktu, which like " hot," Old Eng. hat, is from the Teutonic type haita, hit, to be hot; cf. Ger. hitze, heiss; Dutch, hitte, heet, &c.)

heat, is thus softened, and ploughing begins at once . The wettest See also:

• MONTH
• MONTH (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Mond, Du. maand, Dan. maaned, &c., and cognate with Lat. mensis, Gr. µi7v, &c., in other branches of the Indo-Germanic family; all ultimately from the root seen in the word for the moon in nearly all those languages

month, as indicated by meteorological observation, is See also:

• JANUARY

January; See also:

• FEBRUARY

February is second to it, and See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December third; See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March is also a very wet month . In See also:

• APRIL

April the rains come to an end (the " latter rains ") and the winter crops receive their final fertilization . The winter crops (See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat) are harvested from April to See also:

• JUNE

June .

The summer crops (See also:

• MILLET (Fr. millet; Ital. miglietto, diminutive of miglio= Lat. mille, a thousand, in allusion to its fertility)
• MILLET (or MILE), JEAN FRANCOIS (c. 1642–1679)
• MILLET, FRANCIS DAVIS (1846- )
• MILLET, JEAN FRANCOIS (1814–1875)

millet, See also:

• SESAME

sesame, See also:

• FIGS

figs, melons, grapes, See also:

• OLIVES, MOUNT OF, or MOUNT OLIVET ("Opus 'EXc uwos or riov 'EXauav; mod. Jebel-et-Tur)

olives, &c.) are fertilized by the heavy " dews " which are one of the most remarkable climatic features of the country and to a large extent atone for the See also:

• TOTAL

total lack of rain for one See also:

• HALF

half the year . These crops are harvested from See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August to See also:

• OCTOBER

October . Water See also:

• SUPPLY (through Fr. from Lat. supplere, to fill up)

Supply.—Notwithstanding the long drought, it must not be supposed that Palestine is a waterless country, except in certain districts . There are very few spots from which a See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring of some sort is not accessible . Perennial streams are, and in the recent geological ages always have been, rare in the country . The whole See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face of the land is pitted with ancient cisterns; indeed, many hillsides and See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields are on that See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account most dangerous to walk over by See also:

• NIGHT

night, except for those who are thoroughly familiar with the landmarks . These cisterns are See also:

• BELL
• BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1819—1905)
• BELL, ANDREW (1753—1832)
• BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843)
• BELL, HENRY (1767-1830)
• BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874)
• BELL, JACOB (1810-1859)
• BELL, JOHN (1691-178o)
• BELL, JOHN (1763-1820)
• BELL, JOHN (1797-1869)
• BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867)
• BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774—1842)

bell-shaped or See also:

• BOTTLE (Fr. bouteille, from a diminutive of the Lat. butta, a flask; cf. Eng. " butt ")

bottle-shaped excavations, with a narrow circular See also:

• SHAFT
• SHAFT (O. Eng., sceaft, from scafan, to shave; the word is common to Teutonic languages)

shaft in the See also:

• TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot)

top, hollowed in the See also:

• ROCK
• ROCK (O.Fr. rake, Sp. rota, Ital. rocca; possibly from a Lat. form rupica, from rupes, rock)
• ROCK, DANIEL (1799–187t)

rock and lined with See also:

• CEMENT (from Lat. caementum, rough pieces of stone, a shortened form of caedimentum, from caedere, to cut)

cement . Besides these, more ambitious See also:

• WORKS

works are to be found, all now more or less ruined, in various parts of the country (see AQUEDUCTS: Ancient) . Such are the aqueducts, of which remains exist at See also:

• JERICHO (WI:, m;, once ahn:, a word of disputed meaning, whether " fragrant " or " moon [-god] city ")

Jericho, Caesarea and other places east and west of the Jordan; but especially must be mentioned the enormous reservoirs known as See also:

• SOLOMON, ODES OF
• SOLOMON, PSALMS OF

Solomon's Pools, in a valley between Jerusalem and See also:

• HEBRON (mod. Khulzl er-Rahman, i.e. " the friend of the Merciful One "—an allusion to Abraham)

Hebron, by which the former See also:

• CITY (through Fr. cite, from Lat. civitas)

city was supplied with water through an elaborate See also:

• SYSTEM

system of conduits . Many of these aqueducts, as well as countless See also:

• NUMBERS, BOOK OF
• NUMBERS, PARTITION OF

numbers of now leaky cisterns, could with but little trouble be brought into use again, and would greatly enhance the fertility of the country . The most abundant springs in Palestine are the See also:

• SOURCES

sources of the Jordan at Banias and at Tell el-Kadi . A considerable number of springs in the country are brackish, bein impregnated with chemicals of various kinds or (when near a See also:

• TOWN

town with sewage .

The latter is the case of the Virgin's See also:

• FOUNTAIN (Late Lat. fontana, from ions, a spring)

Fountain (See also:

• AIN

Ain Umm ed-Daraj), which is the only natural source of water in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem . Hot springs are found in various parts of the country, especially at El-Hamma, about 1 m. south of See also:

• TIBERIAS

Tiberias, where the water has a temperature of 140° F . This is still used for curative purposes, as it was in the days of See also:

• HEROD
• HEROD (surnamed THE GREAT)

Herod, but it is neglected and dirty . The spring of the Zerka Ma'in (Calirrhoe) has a temperature of 142° F . There are also hot See also:

• SULPHUR

sulphur springs on the west side of the Dead Sea . Those of El-Hamma, below See also:

• GADARA

Gadara, are from 104° to 120° F. in temperature . See also:

• FAUNA

Fauna.—It has been calculated that about 595 different See also:

• SPECIES

species of vertebrate animals are recorded or still to be found in Palestine—about 113 being mammals (including a few now See also:

• EXTINCT

extinct), 348 birds (including 30 species See also:

• PECULIAR

peculiar to the country), 91 See also:

• REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; ref ere, to creep; Gr. Ep7rety, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them)

reptiles and 43 fishes . Of the invertebrata the number is unknown, but it must be enormous . The most important domestic animals are the See also:

• SHEEP
• SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon sceap, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf)

sheep and the See also:

• GOAT (a common Teut. word; O. Eng. gat, Goth. gaits, Mod. Ger. Geiss, cognate with Lat. haedus, a kid)

goat; the breed of oxen is small and poor . The See also:

• CAMEL (from the Arabic Djemal or the Heb. Gamal)

camel, the See also:

• HORSE (a word common to Teutonic languages in such forms as hors, hros, ros; cf. the Ger. ross)

horse and the donkey are the See also:

• DRAUGHT (from the common Teutonic word " to draw "; cf. Ger. 7'racht, load; the pronunciation led to the variant form " draft," now confined to certain specific meanings)

draught animals; the flesh of the first Geology and See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

Geography of See also:

• ARABIA

Arabia Petraea, Palestine and adjoining Districts (London, 1886) . is eaten by the poorer classes, as is also occasionally that of the second . The See also:

• DOGS, ISLE OF

dogs, which prowl in large numbers See also:

• ROUND (O. Fr. rond, Lat. rotundus, the Fr. is the source also of Du. rond; Ger., Swed., Dan. and Nor. rond)

round the streets of towns and villages, are scarcely domesticated; much the same is true of the See also:

• CATS, JACOB (1577-1660)

cats .

See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

Wild cats, cheetahs and leopards are found, but they are now rare, especially the latter . The See also:

• LION
• LION (Lat, leo, leonis; Gr. Mew)

lion, which inhabited the country in the See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time of the See also:

• HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO THE

Hebrews, is now extinct . The most important wild animals are the See also:

• HYENA

hyena, See also:

• WOLF
• WOLF (Canis lupus)
• WOLF, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1759-1824)
• WOLF, HUGO (1860-1903)
• WOLF, JOSEPH (1820-1899)

wolf (now comparatively rare), See also:

• FOX
• FOX, C
• FOX, CHARLES JAMES (1749-1806)
• FOX, EDWARD (c. 1496-1538)
• FOX, GEORGE (1624-1691)
• FOX, RICHARD (c. 1448-1528)
• FOX, ROBERT WERE (1789—1877)
• FOX, SIR STEPHEN (1627–1716)
• FOX, SIR WILLIAM (1812-1893)

fox and See also:

• JACKAL
• JACKAL (Turk. chakal)

jackal . Bats, various species of rodents, and gazelles are very See also:

• COMMON

common, as is the See also:

• IBEX

ibex in the valleys of the Dead Sea . Among the most characteristic birds may be mentioned eagles, vultures, owls, partridges, See also:

• BEE (Sanskrit blza, AS. ben, Lat. apis)

bee-eaters and hoopoes; singing birds are on the whole uncommon._ See also:

• SNAKES

Snakes—many of them venomous—are numerous, and there are many varieties of lizards . The See also:

• CROCODILE

crocodile is seen (but now very rarely) in the Nahr ez-Zerka . Scorpions and large See also:

• SPIDERS

spiders are a universal pest . See also:

• FLORA

Flora.—The flora of Palestine has a considerable range and variety, owing to the variation in local climatic conditions . In the Jordan valley the vegetation has a semi-tropical character, consonant with the great heat, which here is normal . The coast-plain has another type, i.e. the See also:

• ORDINARY (med. Lat. ordinarius, Fr. ordinaire)

ordinary vegetation of the Mediterranean littoral . In the mountains the flora is, naturally, scantier than in these two more favoured regions, but even here there is a See also:

• RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617)
• RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821)
• RICH, JOHN (1692-1761)
• RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562–1607)
• RICH, RICHARD, 1ST BARON RICH (1490?-1567)

rich variety . In all parts of the country the contrast between the landscape in See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early spring and later, when the cessation of rains and the increase of heat has burnt up the vegetation, is very remarkable .

See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

Population.—The inhabitants of Palestine are composed of a large number of elements, differing widely in ethnological See also:

• AFFINITIES

affinities, See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language and See also:

• RELIGION
• RELIGION, FOLKLORE, CUSTOM

religion . It may be interesting to mention, as an See also:

• ILLUSTRATION

illustration of their heterogeneousness, that early in the 20th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century a See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list of no less than fifty See also:

• LANGUAGES

languages, spoken in Jerusalem as vernaculars, was there See also:

• DRAWN

drawn up by a party of men whose various See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official positions enabled them to possess accurate See also:

• INFORMATION (from Lat. informare, to give shape or form to, to represent, describe)

information on the subject .l It is therefore no easy task to write concisely and at the same time with sufficient fullness on the See also:

• ETHNOLOGY

ethnology of Palestine . There are two classes into which the population of Palestine can be divided—the nomadic and the sedentary . The former is especially characteristic of Eastern Palestine, though Western Palestine also contains its full See also:

• SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu, a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" )

share . The pure Arab origin of the See also:

• BEDOUINS (Ahl Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or Ahl el beit, " people of the tent," as they call themselves)

Bedouins is recognized in common conversation in the country, the word " Arab " being almost restricted to denote these wanderers, and seldom applied to the dwellers in towns and villages . It should be mentioned that there is another, entirely See also:

• INDEPENDENT

independent, See also:

• NOMAD (Gr. voµas, voµabes, wandering)

nomad See also:

• RACE

race, the despised Nowar, who correspond to the See also:

• GIPSIES, or GYPSIES

gipsies or tinkers of See also:

• EUROPEAN

European countries . These See also:

• PEOPLE

people live under the poorest conditions, by doing See also:

• SMITH
• SMITH, ADAM (1723–1790)
• SMITH, ALEXANDER (183o-1867)
• SMITH, ANDREW JACKSON (1815-1897)
• SMITH, CHARLES EMORY (1842–1908)
• SMITH, CHARLES FERGUSON (1807–1862)
• SMITH, CHARLOTTE (1749-1806)
• SMITH, COLVIN (1795—1875)
• SMITH, EDMUND KIRBY (1824-1893)
• SMITH, G
• SMITH, GEORGE (1789-1846)
• SMITH, GEORGE (184o-1876)
• SMITH, GEORGE ADAM (1856- )
• SMITH, GERRIT (1797–1874)
• SMITH, GOLDWIN (1823-191o)
• SMITH, HENRY BOYNTON (1815-1877)
• SMITH, HENRY JOHN STEPHEN (1826-1883)
• SMITH, HENRY PRESERVED (1847– )
• SMITH, JAMES (1775–1839)
• SMITH, JOHN (1579-1631)
• SMITH, JOHN RAPHAEL (1752–1812)
• SMITH, JOSEPH, JR
• SMITH, MORGAN LEWIS (1822–1874)
• SMITH, RICHARD BAIRD (1818-1861)
• SMITH, ROBERT (1689-1768)
• SMITH, SIR HENRY GEORGE WAKELYN
• SMITH, SIR THOMAS (1513-1577)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM (1813-1893)
• SMITH, SIR WILLIAM SIDNEY (1764-1840)
• SMITH, SYDNEY (1771-1845)
• SMITH, THOMAS SOUTHWOOD (1788-1861)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (1769-1839)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (c. 1730-1819)
• SMITH, WILLIAM (fl. 1596)
• SMITH, WILLIAM FARRAR (1824—1903)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1808—1872)
• SMITH, WILLIAM HENRY (1825—1891)
• SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON (1846-'894)

smith's work; they speak among themselves a Romani See also:

• DIALECT (from Gr. Sia stcror, conversation, manner of speaking, &aXeyec6at, to converse)

dialect, much contaminated with Arabic in its vocabulary . The sedentary population of the country villages—the fellahin, or agriculturists—is, on the whole, comparatively unmixed; but traces of various intrusive strains assert themselves . It is by no means unreasonable to suppose that there is a fundamental Canaanite See also:

• ELEMENT (Lat. elementum)

element in this population: the " hewers of See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood and drawers of water " often remain undisturbed through successive occupations of a land; and there is a remark-able See also:

• CORRESPONDENCE
• CORRESPONDENCE (from med. scholastic Lat. correspondentia, corrcspondere, compounded of Lat. cum, with, and respond ere, to answer; cf. Fr. correspondance)

correspondence of type between many of the See also:

• MODERN

modern fellahin and skeletons of ancient inhabitants which have been recovered in the course of excavation . New elements no doubt came in under the See also:

• ASSYRIAN

Assyrian, See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian and See also:

• ROMAN

Roman dominations, and in more recent times there has been much contamination . The spread of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam introduced a very considerable Neo-Arabian infusion . Those from southern Arabia were known as the Yaman tribe, those from See also:

• NORTHERN

northern Arabia the Kais (Qais) .

These two divisions absorbed the previous See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant population, and still nominally exist; down to the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the loth century they were a fruitful source of quarrels and of bloodshed . The two great clans were further subdivided into families, but these See also:

• MINOR
• MINOR (Lat. for smaller, lesser)
• MINOR, ROBERT CRANNELL (1839-1904)

minor divisions are also being gradually broken down . In the loth century the See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short-lived See also:

• EGYPTIAN

Egyptian See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

government introduced into the population an element from that country which still persists in the villages . These newcomers have not been completely assimilated with the villagers among whom they 1 This list was intentionally made as exhaustive as possible, and included some languages (such as Welsh) spoken by one or two individual residents only . But even if, by omitting these accidental items, the list be reduced to See also:

• THIRTY

thirty, a sufficient number will be See also:

• LEFT

left to indicate the See also:

• COSMOPOLITAN (Gr. Kbvµos, world, and IroXirgs, citizen)

cosmopolitan character of the city.have found a See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home; the latter despise them, and discourage intermarriage . Some of the larger villages—notably See also:

• BETHLEHEM
• BETHLEHEM (Heb. " House of Bread," or, according to a more questionable etymology, " of [the god] Lakhmu ")

Bethlehem—which have always been leavened by See also:

• CHRISTIANITY

Christianity, and with the development of See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry have become comparatively prosperous, show tangible results of these happier circumstances in a higher See also:

• STANDARD
• STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE

standard of physique among the men and of See also:

• PERSONAL

personal appearance among the See also:

• WOMEN

women . It is not uncommon in popular writings to attribute this superiority to a crusader See also:

• STRAIN (through O. Fr. straindre, estraindre, mod. i treindre, from Lat. stringere, to draw tight, related to stress, stretch, string, &c.)

strain—a theory which no one can possibly countenance who knows what miserable degenerates the half-breed descendants of the crusaders rapidly became, as a result of their immoral See also:

• LIFE

life and their See also:

• IGNORANCE (Lat. ignorantia, from ignorare, not to know); want of knowledge, a state of mind which in law has important consequences. A well-known legal maxim runs: ignorantia juris non excusat ("ignorance of the law does not excuse")

ignorance of the sanitary precautions necessary in a trying climate . The population of the larger towns is of a much more complex nature . In each there is primarily a large Arab element, consisting for the greater part of members of important and wealthy families . Thus, in Jerusalem, much of the local See also:

• INFLUENCE (Late Lat. influentia, from influere, to flow in)

influence is in the hands of the families of El-Khalidi, El-Husseini and one or two others, who derive their descent from the heroes of the early days of Islam . The See also:

• TURKISH

Turkish element is small, consisting exclusively of officials sent individually from See also:

• CONSTANTINOPLE
• CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF

Constantinople . There are very large contingents from the Mediterranean countries, especially See also:

• ARMENIA (old Persian Armina, Armenian Hayasdan, or Hayq)

Armenia, See also:

• GREECE

Greece and See also:

• ITALY
• ITALY (Italia)

Italy, principally engaged in See also:

• TRADE (O. Eng. trod, footstep, from tredan, to tread; in M. Eng. the forms teed, trod and trade appear, the last in the sense of a beaten track)
• TRADE, BOARD OF

trade .

The extraordinary development of Jewish colonization has since 1870 effected a revolution in the See also:

• BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat. bilantia, an apparatus for weighing, from bi, two, and lanx, a dish or scale)

balance of population in some parts of the country, notably in Jerusalem . There are few residents in the country from the more eastern parts of See also:

• ASIA

Asia —di we except the See also:

• TURKOMAN

Turkoman settlements in the Jaulan, a number of Persians, and a fairly large Afghan See also:

• COLONY (Lat. colonia, from colonus, a cultivator)

colony that since 1905 has established itself in Jaffa . The Mutawileh (Motawila), who form the See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the inhabitants of the villages north-west of See also:

• GALILEE
• GALILEE (Heb. 5'S?, " border " or " ring," Gr. I'aXi?aia)
• GALILEE, SEA OF

Galilee, are probably long-settled immigrants from See also:

• PERSIA

Persia . Some tribes of Kurds live in tents and huts near Lake Huleh . If the inmates of the See also:

• COUNT (Lat. comes, gen. comitis, Fr. comte, Ital. conte, Span. conde)

count-less monastic establishments be excluded, comparatively few from northern or western See also:

• EUROPE

Europe will remain: the See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German " Templar " colonies being perhaps the most important . There must also be mentioned a Bosnian colony established at Caesarea Palestina, and the Circassian settlements placed in certain centres of Eastern Palestine by the Turkish government in See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order to keep a See also:

• RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent)

restraint on the Bedouin: the latter are also found in Galilee . There was formerly a large Sudanese and Algerian element in the population of some of the large towns, but these have been much reduced in numbers since the beginning of the loth century: the Algerians however still maintain themselves in parts of Galilee . The most interesting of all the non-Arab communities in the country, however, is without doubt the Samaritan See also:

• SECT

sect in Nablus (See also:

• SHECHEM (mod. Nablus)

Shechem); a gradually disappearing See also:

• BODY

body, which has maintained an independent existence from the time when they were first settled by the Assyrians to occupy the land left See also:

• WASTE (O. Fr. wast, guast, gast, gaste; Lat. vastus, vast, desolate)

waste by the captivity of the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of See also:

• ISRAEL (Hebrew for " God strives " or " rules "; see Gen. xxxii. 28; and the allusion in Hosea xii. 4)

Israel . The total population of the country is roughly estimated at 650,000, but no See also:

• AUTHENTIC (from Gr. aOO 'rns, one who does a thing himself)

authentic official See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census exists from which satisfactory information on this point is obtainable . Some two-thirds of this number are Moslems, the See also:

• REST (O. Eng. rest, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Riiste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place)

rest Christians of various sects, and See also:

• JEWS
• JEWS (Heb. Y8hudi, man of Judah; Gr. 'Iovbaiot; Lat. Judaei)

Jews . The largest town in Palestine is Jerusalem, estimated to contain a population of about 6o,000 . The other towns of above Io,000 inhabitants are Jaffa (45,000), See also:

• GAZA (or `AllAH, mod. Ghuzzeh)
• GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475)

Gaza (35,000), Safed (30,000), Nablus (25,000), See also:

• KERAK

Kerak (20,000), Hebron (18,500), Es-See also:

• SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz, Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. &Xs, Lat. sal)
• SALT, SIR TITUS, BART

Salt (15,000), See also:

• ACRE
• ACRE, or AQUIRY

Acre (i1,000), See also:

• NAZARETH (mod. en-Ndsira)

Nazareth (I I,oco) .

The above remarks apply to the permanent population . They would be incomplete without a passing word on the non-permanent elements which at certain seasons of the year are in the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal centres the most conspicuous . Especially in winter and early spring crowds of European and See also:

• AMERICAN

American tourists, See also:

• RUSSIAN

Russian pilgrims and Bokharan devotees jostle one another in the streets in picturesque incongruity . See also:

• POLITICAL

Political Divisions.—Under the See also:

• OTTOMAN

Ottoman See also:

• JURISDICTION
• JURISDICTION, CRIMINAL LAW, DIVORCE

jurisdiction Palestine has no independent existence . West of the Jordan, and to about half-way between Nablus and Jerusalem, is the southern portion of the vilayet or See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province of See also:

• BEIRUT

Beirut . South of this point is the sanjak' of Jerusalem, to which Nazareth with its immediate neighbourhood is added, so as to bring all the principal " See also:

• HOLY

Holy Places " under one jurisdiction . East of the Jordan the country forms part of the large vilayet of See also:

• SYRIA

Syria, whose centre is at See also:

• DAMASCUS

Damascus . Communications.—Until 1892 communication through the country was entirely by See also:

• CARAVAN (more correctly Karwan)

caravan, and this See also:

• PRIMITIVE

primitive method is still followed over the greater part of its See also:

• AREA

area . On the 26th of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September of that year a railway between Jaffa and Jerusalem, with five intermediate stations, was opened, and has much facilitated transit between the coast and the mountains of See also:

• JUDAEA

Judaea . A railway from See also:

• HAIFA

Haifa to Damascus was opened in 1905; it runs across the Plain of Esdraelon, enters the Ghor at Beisan, then, turning northwards, impinges on the Sea of Galilee at Samakh, and runs up the valley of the Yarmuk to join, at ed-Der'a, the line of the third railway . This was undertaken in 1901 to connect Damascus with See also:

• MECCA (Arab. Makkah)

Mecca; in 1906 it was finished as far as Ma'an, and in 1908 the See also:

• SECTION
• SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut)

section to See also:

• MEDINA
• MEDINA, JOSE TORIBIO (1852- )

Medina was completed . See also:

• CARRIAGE

Carriage-roads also began to be constructed during the last See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade of the 19th century .

They are on the whole carelessly made and maintained, and are liable to go badly and more or less permanently out of repair in heavy rain . Of completed roads the most important are from Jaffa to Haifa, Jaffa to Nablus, Jaffa to Jerusalem, Jaffa to Gaza; Jerusalem to Jericho, Jerusalem to Bethlehem with a See also:

• BRANCH (from the Fr. branche, late Lat. branca, an animal's paw)

branch to Hebron, Jerusalem to See also:

• KHAN (from the Turki, hence Persian and Arabic Khan)

Khan Labban —ultimately to be extended to Nablus; and Gaza to See also:

• BEERSHEBA

Beersheba . Other roads have been begun in Galilee (e.g . Haifa to Tiberias and to Jenin); but in this respect the northern province is far behind the southern . For the rest there is a network of tracks, all practically impassable by wheeled vehicles, extending over the country and connecting the towns and villages one with another . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—There are no mines and few manufactures of importance in Palestine: the country is entirely agricultural . Although the processes are primitive and improvements are discouraged, both by the policy of the government and by an indolence and suspiciousness of innovation natural to the people themselves, See also:

• FINE

fine crops of cereals are yielded, especially in the large wheat-lands of Hauran . Besides wheat, the following crops are to a greater or less extent cultivated—barley, millet, sesame, See also:

• MAIZE, or INDIAN CORN

maize, beans, peas, lentils, kursenni (a species of See also:

• VETCH

vetch used as camel-See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food) and, in some parts of the country, See also:

• TOBACCO

tobacco . The agriculturist has many enemies to contend with, the tax-gatherer being perhaps the most deadly; and drought, earthquakes, rats and locusts have at all periods been responsible for barren years . The fruit trade is very considerable . The value of the oranges exported from Jaffa in 1906 was £162,000; this amount increases annually, and of course in addition a considerable quantity is retained for home See also:

• CONSUMPTION (Lat. consumere)

consumption . Besides these are grown melons, mulberries, bananas, apricots, quinces, walnuts, lemons and citron .

The culture of the vine—formerly an important See also:

• STAPLE

staple, as is proved by the countless ancient See also:

• WINE (Lat. vinum, Gr. oivos)

wine-presses scattered over the rocky hillsides of the whole country—See also:

• FELL
• FELL, JOHN (1625-1686)

fell to some extent into desuetude, no doubt owing to the Moslem See also:

• PROHIBITION (Lat. prohibere, to prevent)

prohibition of wine-drinking . It is, however, rapidly returning to favour, principally under Jewish auspices, and numerous vineyards now exist at different centres . All over the country are olive-trees, the fruit and oil of which are a staple product of the country; the trade is however hampered by an excessive tax on trees, which not only discourages See also:

• PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant)

plantation, but has the unfortunate effect of encouraging destruction . Other fruit trees are abundant, though less so than those we have mentioned: such are pomegranates,