See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

KASHMIR, or CASHMERE  , a native See also:

• STATE
• STATE, GREAT OFFICERS OF

state of See also:

• INDIA
• INDIA, FRENCH

India, including much of the Himalayan See also:

• MOUNTAIN (0. Fr. montaigne; popular Lat. montanea, an adjectival form from the classical mons, montis, whence Eng. " mount," a form usually used along with the name of an individual mountain, e.g. Mt Everest)
• MOUNTAIN, THE (La Montagne)

mountain See also:

• SYSTEM

system to the See also:

• NORTH
• NORTH, BARONS
• NORTH, MARIANNE (1830—1890)
• NORTH, ROGER (1653-1734)
• NORTH, SIR THOMAS (1535?-16o1?)

north of the See also:

• PUNJAB

Punjab . It has been fabled in See also:

• SONG

song for its beauty (e.g. in See also:

• MOORE, A
• MOORE, ALBERT JOSEPH (1841–1893)
• MOORE, EDWARD (1712–1757)
• MOORE, GEORGE (1853– )
• MOORE, GEORGE FOOT (1851– )
• MOORE, HENRY (1831–1895)
• MOORE, JOHN (1729-1802)
• MOORE, SIR JOHN (1761-1809)
• MOORE, THOMAS (1779-1852)

Moore's Lalla Rookh), and is the See also:

• CHIEF (from Fr. chef, head, Lat. caput)

chief See also:

• HEALTH

health resort for Europeans in India, while politically it is important as guarding one of the approaches to India on the north-See also:

• WEST
• WEST, BENJAMIN (1738-1820)
• WEST, NICHOLAS (1461-1533)

west frontier . The proper name of the state is See also:

• JAMMU

Jammu and See also:

• KASHMIR, or CASHMERE

Kashmir, and it comprises in all an estimated See also:

• AREA

area of 80,900 sq. m., with a See also:

• POPULATION (Lat. populus, people; populare, to populate)

population (1901) of 2,905,578, showing an increase of 14.21% in the See also:

• DECADE (from Gr. Oka, ten)

decade . It is bounded on the north by some See also:

• PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687)

petty hills chiefships and by the Karakoram mountains; on the See also:

• EAST
• EAST, ALFRED (1849- )

east by See also:

• TIBET, or THIBET

Tibet; and on the See also:

• SOUTH
• SOUTH, ROBERT (1634–1716)

south and west by the Punjab and North-West Frontier provinces . The state is in See also:

• DIRECT

direct See also:

• POLITICAL

political subordination to the See also:

• GOVERNMENT
• GOVERNMENT (0. Fr. governement, mod. gouvernement, O. Fr. governer, mod. gouverner, from Lat. gubernare, to steer a ship, guide, rule; cf. Gr. xv(3epvav)

Government of India, which is represented by a See also:

• RESIDENT

resident . Its territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the jagir of See also:

• PUNCH

Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and See also:

• GILGIT

Gilgit; the Shin states of Yaghistan, of which the most important are See also:

• CHILAS

Chilas, Darel and Tangir, are nominally subordinate to it, and the two former pay a See also:

• TRIBUTE (Lat. tributurn, a stated payment, contribution)

tribute of See also:

• GOLD
• GOLD [symbol Au, atomic weight 195.7(H = 1),197.2(0 =16)]

gold dust . The following are the See also:

• STATISTICS

statistics for the See also:

• MAIN (from the Aryan root which appears in " may " and " might," and Lat. magnus, great)
• MAIN (Lat. Moenus)

main divisions of the state: Area in sq. m . Pop. in 1901 . Jammu 5,223 1,521,307 Kashmir 7,922 1,157,394 Frontier Districts 443 226,877 The See also:

• REMAINDER, REVERSION

remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains, and its only really important possessions are the districts of Jammu and Kashmir . See also:

• PHYSICAL

Physical Conformation.—The greater portion of the See also:

• COUNTRY (from the Mid. Eng. contre or contrie, and O. Fr. cuntree; Late Lat. contrata, showing the derivation from contra, opposite, over against, thus the tract of land which fronts the sight, cf. Ger. Gegend, neighbourhood)

country is mountainous, and with the exception of a See also:

• STRIP

strip of See also:

• PLAIN (O. Fr. plain, from Lat. plenum)

plain on the south-west, which is continuous with the See also:

• GREAT

great level of the Punjab, may be conveniently divided into the following regions: (1) The See also:

• OUTER

outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu See also:

• DISTRICT

district . (2) The valley of Kashmir . (3) The far See also:

• SIDE
• SIDE (mod. Eski Adalia)

side of the great central range, including Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit .

The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab plains, begin with a height of too to 200 ft., followed by a See also:

• TRACT (from Lat. tractare, to treat of a matter, through Provencal tractat and Ital. trattato)

tract of rugged country, including various ridges See also:

• RUNNING

running nearly parallel, with See also:

• LONG, GEORGE (1800-1879)
• LONG, JOHN DAVIS (1838– )

long narrow valleys between . The See also:

• AVERAGE

average height of these ridges is from 3000 to 4000 ft . The central mountains are commonly 8000 to 1o,000 ft., covered with pasture or else with See also:

• FOREST

forest . Then follow the more lofty mountain ranges, including the region of perpetual See also:

• SNOW (in O. Eng. sndw; a common Indo-European word; cf. in Teutonic languages, Ger. Schnee, Du. sneeuw; in Slavonic snieg', Lith. snegas; Gr. vi4a, Lat. nix, nivis, whence the Romanic forms, Ital. neve, Fr. neige, &c.; Ir. and Gael. sneachd; the original

snow . A great See also:

• CHAIN (through the O. Fr. citable, chcene, &c., from Lat. catena)

chain of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west divides the drainage of the See also:

• CHENAB (the Greek Acesines)

Chenab and the See also:

• JHELUM, or JEHLAM
• JHELUM, or JEHLAM (Hydaspes of the Greeks)

Jhelum See also:

• RIVERS
• RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442—1483)
• RIVERS, EARL
• RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660—1712)

rivers from that of the higher branches of the See also:

• INDUS

Indus . It is within spurs from this chain that the valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid hills which rise from 14,000 t0 15,000 ft., while the valley itself forms a See also:

• CUP (in O.E. cuppe; generally taken to be from Late Lat. cuppa, a variant of Lat. cupa, a cask, cf. Gr. KuaeXXov)

cup-like See also:

• BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus, probably derived from bacca, a bowl)
• BASIN, THOMAS (1412—1491)

basin at an See also:

• ELEVATION

elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft . All beyond that great range is a wide tract of mountainous country, bordering the north-western See also:

• PART

part of Tibet and embracing Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit . The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of its surrounding hills, is about 120 M. from north-west to south-east with a maximum width of about 75 M . The See also:

• LOW, SETH (1850- )
• LOW, WILL HICOK (1853- )

low and comparatively level See also:

• FLOOR (from O. Eng. flor, a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch vloer, and Ger. Flur, a field, in the feminine, and a floor, masculine)

floor of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 24 M. broad . The hills forming the See also:

• NORTHERN

northern See also:

• HALF

half-See also:

• CIRCUIT (Lat. circuitus, from circum, round, and ire, to go)

circuit of the Kashmir valley, and running beyond, include many lofty mountain masses and peaks, the most conspicuous of which, a little outside the confines of Kashmir, is See also:

• NANGA

Nanga Parbat, the See also:

• FOURTH

fourth highest mountain in the See also:

• WORLD

world, 26,656 ft. above the See also:

• SEA (in O. Eng. sae, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See, Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain)
• SEA, COMMAND OF THE

sea, with an extensivearea of See also:

• GLACIER
• GLACIER (adopted from the French; from glace, ice, Lat. glacies)

glacier on its eastern See also:

• FACE (from Lat. fades, derived either from facere, to make, or from a root fa-, meaning " appear "; cf. Gr. cbatvstv)

face . The great See also:

• RIDGE (a word. common to many Teutonic languages, meaning " back," whether of a man or an animal, cf. German Rucke)
• RIDGE, WILLIAM PETT (1864- )

ridge which is thrown off to the south-west by Nanga Parbat rises, at a distance of 12 m., to another See also:

• SUMMIT

summit 20,740 ft. in height, from which run south-west, and south-east the ridges which are the northern See also:

• WATERSHED

watershed boundary of Kashmir . The former range, after running 70 M. south-west, between the valleys of the Kishenganga and the Kunhar or Nainsukh, turns southward, closely pressing the See also:

• RIVER

river Jhelum, after it has received the Kishenganga, with a break a few See also:

• MILES, NELSON APPLETON (1839— )

miles farther south which admits the Kunhar .

This range presents several prominent summits, the highest two 16,487 and 15,544 ft. above the sea . The range which runs south-east from the junction peakabove mentioned divides the valley of the Kishenganga from that of the See also:

• ASTOR, JOHN JACOB (1763-1848)

Astor and other tributaries of the Indus . The highest point on this range, where it skirts Kashmir, is 17,202 ft. above the sea . For more than 50 M. from Nanga Parbat there are no glaciers on this range; thence eastward they increase; one, near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft. above the sea . The mountains at the east end of the valley, running nearly north and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other side to the Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab . The highest part of this eastern boundary is 14,700 ft . There no are glaciers . The highest point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west boundary, is 15,523 ft. above the sea . The river Jhelum (q.v.) or Behat (See also:

• SANSKRIT

Sanskrit (Vitasta)-the Hydaspesof See also:

• GREEK
• GREEK, ETRUSCAN AND

Greek historians and geographers—flows north-westward through the See also:

• MIDDLE

middle of the valley . After a slow and winding course it expands about 25 M. below See also:

• SRINAGAR

Srinagar,•over a slight depression in the plain, and forms the Wular See also:

• LAKE
• LAKE, GERARD LAKE, 1ST VISCOUNT (1744-1808)

lake and See also:

• MARSH (O. F. mersc, for merisc, a place full of "meres" or pools; cf. Ger. Meer, sea, Lat. mare)
• MARSH, ADAM (ADAM DE MARISCO) (d. c. 1258)
• MARSH, GEORGE PERKINS (1801-1882)
• MARSH, HERBERT (1757–1839)
• MARSH, NARCISSUS (1638-1713)
• MARSH, OTHNIEL CHARLES (1831-1899)

marsh, which is about 122 M. by 5 M. in extent, and surrounded by the lofty mountains which See also:

• TOWER (Lat. turris; Fr. tour, clocker; Ital. torre; Ger. Thurm)

tower over the north and north-east of the valley . Leaving the lake on the south-west side, near the See also:

• TOWN

town of Sopur, the river pursues its sluggish course south-westward, about 18 m. to the See also:

• GORGE

gorge at Baramulla . From this point the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley which conducts it westward 75 M. to Muzaffarabad, where it turns sharply south, joined by the Kishenganga .

At See also:

• ISLAMABAD

Islamabad, about 40 M. above Srinagar, the river is 5400 ft. above sea-level, and at Srinagar 5235 ft . It has thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part of its course . For the next 24 M. to the Wular lake, and thence to Baramulla, its fall is only about 21 ft. in the mile . On the 8o m. of the river in the See also:

• FLAT (a modification of O. Eng. flet, an obsolete word of Teutonic origin, meaning the ground beneath the feet)

flat valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there is much See also:

• BOAT (0. Eng. bdt; the true etymological connexion with Dutch and Ger. boot, Fr. bateau, Ital. battello presents great difficulties; Celtic forms are from O. Eng.)

boat See also:

• TRAFFIC

traffic; but none below Baramulla, till the river comes out into the plains . On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is a broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range runs the Kishenganga River . Near the east end of this interior hilly tract, and connected with the higher range, is one summit 17,839 ft . Around this See also:

• PEAK, THE

peak and between the ridges which run from it are many small glaciers . These heights look down on one side into the beautiful valley of the See also:

• SIND

Sind River, and on another into the valley of the Lidar, which join the Jhelum . Among the hills north of Srinagar rises one conspicuous mountain See also:

• MASS (O.E. maesse; Fr. messe; Ger. Messe; Ital. messa; from eccl. Lat. missa)
• MASS, IN

mass, 16,903 ft. in height, from which on its north side descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the south the Wangat River, which flows into the Sind . By these rivers and their numerous affluents the wholevalley of Kashmir is watered abundantly . Around the See also:

• FOOT

foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-See also:

• LAND

land, called karewa . These terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from too to 300 ft. above the alluvial plain .

Those which are near each other are mostly about the same level, and separated by deep ravines . The level plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of See also:

• FINE

fine See also:

• CLAY (from O. Eng. claeg, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Klei)
• CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903)
• CLAY, CHARLES (1801–1893)
• CLAY, FREDERIC (1838–1889)
• CLAY, HENRY (1777–1852)

clay and See also:

• SAND
• SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876)

sand, with See also:

• WATER

water-worn pebbles . The karewas consist of See also:

• HORIZONTAL

horizontal beds of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which is shown by the shells which they contain . Two passes See also:

• LEAD
• LEAD (pronounced iced)

lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzil (13,500 ft.) and the Kamri (14,050) . The Burzil is the main pass between Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor . It is usually practicable only between the middle of See also:

• JULY

July and the middle of See also:

• SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven)

September . The road from Srinagar to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the Zoji-la-pass (11,300 ft.) Only a See also:

• SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857– )

short piece of the road, where snow accumulates, prevents this pass being used all the See also:

• YEAR

year . At the south-east end of the valley are three passes, the Margan (11,500 ft.), the Hoksar (13,315) and the Marbal (11,5oo), leading to the valleys of the Chenab and the See also:

• RAVI

Ravi . South of Islamabad, on the direct route to Jammu and See also:

• SIALKOT, or SEALKOTE

Sialkot, is the Banihal pass (9236 ft.) . Further west on the Panjal range is the Pir Panjal or Panchal pass (11,400 ft.), with a second pass, the Rattan Pir (8200 ft.), across a second ridge about 15 M. south-west of it . Between the two passes is the beautifully situated fort of Baramgali . This See also:

• PLACE (through Fr. from Lat. platea, street; Gr. IrAar6s, wide)

place is in the domain of the See also:

• RAJA

raja of Punch, See also:

• COUSIN (Fr. cousin, Ital. cugino, Late Lat. cosinus, perhaps a popular and familiar abbreviation of consobrinus, which has the same sense in classical Latin)
• COUSIN, JEAN (1500-1590)
• COUSIN, VICTOR (1792–1867)

cousin and tributary of the maharaja of Kashmir .

At Rajaori, south of these passes, the road divides: one See also:

• LINE

line leads to Bhimber and See also:

• GUJRAT

Gujrat, the other to Jammu and Sialkot by Aknur . South-west of Baramulla is the Haji Pir pass (8500 ft.), which indicates the road to Punch . From Punch one road leads down to the plains at the town of Jhelum, another eastward through the hills to the Rattan Pir pass and Rajaori . Lastly, there is the river pass of the Jhelum, which is the easy route from the valley west-See also:

• WARD
• WARD, ADOLPHUS WILLIAM (1837- )
• WARD, ARTEMUS
• WARD, EDWARD MATTHEW (1816-1879)
• WARD, ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS (1844-1911)
• WARD, JAMES (1769--1859)
• WARD, JAMES (1843– )
• WARD, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1830-1910)
• WARD, LESTER FRANK (1841– )
• WARD, MARY AUGUSTA [MRS HUMPHRY WARD]
• WARD, WILLIAM (1766-1826)
• WARD, WILLIAM GEORGE (1812-1882)

ward, having two ways down to the plains, one by Muzaffarabad and the See also:

• HAZARA

Hazara valley to See also:

• HASAN

Hasan Abdal, the other by the See also:

• BRITISH

British See also:

• HILL
• HILL (0. Eng. hyll; cf. Low Ger. hull, Mid. Dutch hul, allied to Lat. celsus, high, collis, hill, &c.)
• HILL, A
• HILL, AARON (1685-175o)
• HILL, AMBROSE POWELL
• HILL, DANIEL HARVEY (1821-1889)
• HILL, DAVID BENNETT (1843–1910)
• HILL, GEORGE BIRKBECK NORMAN (1835-1903)
• HILL, JAMES J
• HILL, JOHN (c. 1716-1775)
• HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT (1792-1872)
• HILL, OCTAVIA (1838– )
• HILL, ROWLAND (1744–1833)
• HILL, SIR ROWLAND (1795-1879)

hill station of See also:

• MURREE

Murree to See also:

• RAWALPINDI

Rawalpindi . See also:

• GEOLOGY (from Gr. yp7, the earth, and Abyor, science)

Geology.—The See also:

• GENERAL
• GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or class)

general strike of the beds, and of the folds which have affected them, is from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the mountain ranges . Along the south-western border lies the See also:

• ZONE (Gr. 'WV77, a girdle, from 'wvvLvay to gird)

zone of See also:

• TERTIARY

Tertiary beds which forms the Sub-Himalayas . Next to this is a great See also:

• BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger. form being bale, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived)
• BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878)

belt of Palaeozoic rocks, through which rise the See also:

• GRANITE (adapted from the Ital. granite, grained; Lat. granum, grain)

granite, See also:

• GNEISS

gneiss and schist of the Zanskar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal . In the midst of the Palaeozoic area See also:

• LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833—1908)
• LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842–1899)

lie the See also:

• ALLUVIUM

alluvium and See also:

• PLEISTOCENE

Pleistocene deposits of the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the upper part of the Sind valley . Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt is a zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargil and extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to See also:

• SPIT

Spit' and beyond . Finally, in Baltistan and the Ladakh range there is a broad zone composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of See also:

• ANCIENT
• ANCIENT (also spelt ANTIENT; derived, through the Fr. ancien, old, from the late Lat. antianum, from ante, before)

ancient date . The See also:

• OLDEST

oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician Or See also:

• SILURIAN

Silurian systems . But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils become at all abundant (so far as is yet known) .

The Mesozoic deposits belong chiefly to the Trias and See also:

• JURA
• JURA (" deer island ")

Jura, but Cretaceous beds have been found near the See also:

• HEAD (in 0. Eng. heafad; the word is common to Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch hoofd, Ger. Haupt, generally taken to be in origin connected with Lat. caput, Gr. KerbOvi7)
• HEAD, SIR EDMUND WALKER, BART
• HEAD, SIR FRANCIS BOND, BART

head of the Tsarap valley . The Tertiary system includes representatives of all the See also:

• PRINCIPAL

principal divisions recognized in other parts of the Himalayas . See also:

• CLIMATE

Climate.—The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west See also:

• MONSOON
• MONSOON (Arabic Mausim, season)

monsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India . Its rainfall is irregular, greatest in the See also:

• SPRING (from " to spring," " to leap or jump up," " burst out," O. Eng., springau, a common Teut. word, cf. Ger. springer, possibly allied to Gr. QnrFpxecOac, to move rapidly)

spring months . Occasional storms in the monsoon pass over the crests of the Panjal and give heavy See also:

• RAIN (O.E. regn; the word is common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Regen, Swed. and Dan. regn; it has been connected with Lat. rigare, to wet, Gr. 13pixeav)

rain on the elevated plateaus on the Kashmir side . And again clouds pass over the valley and are arrested by the higher hills on the north-east side . Snow falls on the surrounding hills at intervals from See also:

• OCTOBER

October to See also:

• MARCH
• MARCH (1) (from Fr. marcher, to walk; the earliest sense in French appears to be " to trample," and the origin has usually been found in the Lat. marcus, hammer; Low Lat. marcare, to hammer; hence to beat the road with the regular tread of a soldier: cf.
• MARCH, AUZIAS (c. "1395-1458)
• MARCH, EARLS OF
• MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825– )

March . In the valley the first snow generally falls about the end of See also:

• DECEMBER (Lat. decent, ten)

December, but never to any great amount . The hottest months are July, See also:

• AUGUST (originally Sextilis)

August and the greater part of September, during which the See also:

• NOON

noon shade temperature varies from 85° to 90° and occasionally 95° at Srinagar, probably the hottest place in the valley . The coldest months are See also:

• JANUARY

January and See also:

• FEBRUARY

February, when for several See also:

• WEEKS, EDWIN LORD (1849-1903)

weeks the average minimum temperature is about 15° below freezing . As a health resort the See also:

• PROVINCE
• PROVINCE (Lat. provincia; perhaps a contraction of providentia)

province, excluding Srinagar, which is insanitary and relaxing, has no See also:

• RIVAL

rival anywhere in the See also:

• NEIGHBOUR (O. Eng. neahgebiir, from Walt, " nigh," " near ")

neighbour-See also:

• HOOD,
• HOOD, JOHN BELL (1831–1879)
• HOOD, SAMUEL HOOD, VISCOUNT (1724–1816)
• HOOD, SIR SAMUEL (1762-1814)
• HOOD, THOMAS (1799-1845)
• HOOD, TOM (1835–1874)

hood of India . Its climate is admirably adapted to the See also:

• EUROPEAN

European constitution, and in consequence of the varied range of temperature and the facility of moving about the visitor is enabled with ease to select places at elevations most congenial to him .

Formerly only 200 passes a year were issued by the government, but now no restriction is placed on visitors, and their number increases annually . European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, resort there freely . The railway to Rawalpindi, and a See also:

• DRIVING (from " to drive," i.e. generally to propel, force along or in, a word common in various forms to the Teutonic languages)

driving road thence to Srinagar make the valley easy of See also:

• ACCESS (Lat. accessus)

access . When the temperature in Srinagar rises at the beginning of See also:

• JUNE

June, there is a general See also:

• EXODUS, BOOK OF
• EXODUS, THE

exodus to Gulmarg, which has become a fashionable hill-station . This great influx of visitors has resulted in a corresponding diminution of See also:

• GAME

game . See also:

• SPECIAL

Special game preservation rules have been introduced, and nullahs are let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot . The See also:

• WILD, JONATHAN (c. 1682-1725)

wild animals of the country include See also:

• IBEX

ibex, See also:

• MARKHOR (" snake-eater ")

markhor, oorial, the Kashmir See also:

• STAG (0. Eng. stagga, a Norse word, cf. Icel. steggr, steggi, a male animal, cf. Steggander, a drake; it is usually referred to stigan, to climb, to mount, but this is doubtful)

stag, and See also:

• BLACK
• BLACK, ADAM (1784-1874)
• BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN (1810–1883)
• BLACK, WILLIAM (1841-1898)

black and See also:

• BROWN
• BROWN, CHARLES BROCKDEN (1771-181o)
• BROWN, FORD MADOX (1821-1893)
• BROWN, FRANCIS (1849- )
• BROWN, GEORGE (1818-188o)
• BROWN, HENRY KIRKE (1814-1886)
• BROWN, JACOB (1775–1828)
• BROWN, JOHN (1715–1766)
• BROWN, JOHN (1722-1787)
• BROWN, JOHN (1735–1788)
• BROWN, JOHN (1784–1858)
• BROWN, JOHN (1800-1859)
• BROWN, JOHN (1810—1882)
• BROWN, JOHN GEORGE (1831— )
• BROWN, ROBERT (1773-1858)
• BROWN, SAMUEL MORISON (1817—1856)
• BROWN, SIR GEORGE (1790-1865)
• BROWN, SIR JOHN (1816-1896)
• BROWN, SIR WILLIAM, BART
• BROWN, THOMAS (1663-1704)
• BROWN, THOMAS (1778-1820)
• BROWN, THOMAS EDWARD (1830-1897)
• BROWN, WILLIAM LAURENCE (1755–1830)

brown bears . Many sportsmen now See also:

• CROSS

cross into Ladakh and the See also:

• PAMIRS

Pamirs . See also:

• PEOPLE

People.—The great See also:

• MAJORITY (Fr. majorite; Med. Lat. majoritas; Lat. major, greater)

majority of the inhabitants of Kashmir are professedly Mahommedans, but their See also:

• CONVERSION (Lat. conversio, from convertere, to turn or ,change)

conversion to the faith of See also:

• ISLAM

Islam is comparatively See also:

• RECENT

recent and they are still strongly influenced by their ancient superstitions . At the See also:

• CENSUS (from Lat. censere, to estimate or assess; connected by some with centum, i.e. a count by hundreds)

census of 1901 out of a See also:

• TOTAL

total population in the whole state of 2,905,578, there were 2,154,695 Mahommedans, 689,073 See also:

• HINDUS

Hindus, 35,047 Buddhists and 25,828 Sikhs . The Hindus are mostly found in Jammu, and the Buddhists are confined to Ladakh . In Kashmir proper the few Hindus (60,682) are almost all Brahmans, known as Pundits .

Superstition has made the See also:

• KASHMIRI (properly Kdimiri)

Kashmiri timid; tyranny has made him a liar; while physical disasters have made him selfish and pessimistic . Up to recent times the See also:

• CULTIVATOR

cultivator lived under a system of begar, which entitled an See also:

• OFFICIAL (Late Lat. QJicialis, for class. Lat. apparitor, from officium, office, duty)

official to take either labour or commodities See also:

• FREE

free of See also:

• PAYMENT (Fr. paiement, from payer, to pay; Lat. pacare, to appease, pax, peace)

payment from the villages . Having no See also:

• SECURITY (Lat. securus, free from care, safe)

security of See also:

• PROPERTY

property, the people had no incentive to effort, and with no security for See also:

• LIFE

life they lost the See also:

• INDEPENDENCE
• INDEPENDENCE, DECLARATION OF
• INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF

independence of free men . But the land See also:

• SETTLEMENT
• SETTLEMENT, ACT OF

settlement of 1889 swept all these abuses away . Restrictive monopolies, under which bricks, See also:

• LIME
• LIME (O. Eng. lim, Lat. limes, mud, from linere, to smear)

lime, See also:

• PAPER
• PAPER (Fr. papier, from Lat. papyrus)

paper and certain other manufactures were closed to private enterprise, were abolished . The results of the settlement are thus enumerated by See also:

• SIR

Sir See also:

• WALTER, HUBERT (d. 1205)
• WALTER, JOHN (1738/9-1812)

Walter See also:

• LAWRENCE
• LAWRENCE (LAURENTIUS, LORENZO), ST
• LAWRENCE, AMOS (1786—1852)
• LAWRENCE, AMOS ADAMS (1814–1886)
• LAWRENCE, GEORGE ALFRED (1827–1876)
• LAWRENCE, JOHN LAIRD MAIR LAWRENCE, 1ST BARON (1811-1879)
• LAWRENCE, SIR HENRY MONTGOMERY (1806–1857)
• LAWRENCE, SIR THOMAS (1769–1830)
• LAWRENCE, STRINGER (1697–1775)

Lawrence: " Little by little, confidence has sprung up . Land which had no value in 1889 is now eagerly sought after by all classes . Cultivation has extended and improved . Houses have been rebuilt and repaired, See also:

• FIELDS, JAMES THOMAS (1817-1881)

fields fenced in, orchards planted, See also:

• VEGETABLE

vegetable gardens well stocked and new See also:

• MILLS, JOHN (d. 1736)
• MILLS, ROGER QUARLES (1832– )

mills constructed . See also:

• WOMEN

Women no longer are seen toiling in the fields, for their husbands are now at See also:

• HOME
• HOME, DANIEL DUNGLAS (1833-1886)
• HOME, EARLS OF

home to do the See also:

• WORK

work, and the long journeys to Gilgit are a thing of the past . When the See also:

• HARVEST (A.S. hcerfest " autumn," O.H. Ger. herbist, possibly through an old Teutonic root representing Lat. car pere, " to pluck ")

harvest is ripe the See also:

• PEASANT (O. Fr. paysant, Mod. paysan; Lat. pagensis, belonging to the pagus or country; cf. " pagan ")

peasant reaps it at his own See also:

• GOOD, JOHN MASON (1764-1827)

good See also:

• TIME (0. Eng. Lima, cf. Icel. timi, Swed. timme, hour, Dan. time; from the root also seen in " tide," properly the time of between the flow and ebb of the sea, cf. O. Eng. getidan, to happen, " even-tide," &c.; it is not directly related to Lat. tempus)
• TIME, MEASUREMENT OF
• TIME, STANDARD

time, and not a soldier ever enters the villages." In consequence of this improvement in their conditions of life and of the influx of See also:

• WEALTH

wealth into the country brought by visitors, the Kashmiri grows every year in material prosperity and independence of See also:

• CHARACTER (Gr. xapareri7p, from xap&crew, to scratch)

character . The Kashmir women have a reputation for beauty which is not altogether deserved, but the See also:

• CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO

children are always See also:

• PRETTY

pretty .

The See also:

• LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. langage, from langue, tongue, Lat. lingua)

language spoken in Kashmir is akin to that of the Punjab, though marked by many peculiarities . It possesses an ancient literature, which is written in a special character (see KASHMIR1) . Natural Calamities.—The effect of physical calamities partly incidental to the climate of Kashmir, upon the character of its in-habitants has been referred to . The See also:

• LIST (O.E. lisle, a Teutonic word, cf. Dut. lust, Ger. Leiste, adapted in Ital. lista and Fr. lisle)
• LIST, FRIEDRICH (1789-1846)

list includes fires, floods, See also:

• EARTH
• EARTH (a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Erde, Dutch aarde, Swed. and Dan. jord; outside Teutonic it appears only in the Gr. 'pq'e, on the ground; it has been connected by some etymologists with the Aryan root ar-, to plough, which is seen in
• EARTH, FIGURE OF
• EARTH, FIGURE OF THE

earth-quakes, famines and See also:

• CHOLERA (from the Gr. Xo)du, tile, and Map, to flow)

cholera . The ravages of See also:

• FIRE (in O. Eng. f j'r; the word is common to West German languages, cf. Dutch vuur, Ger. Feuer; the pre-Teutonic form is seen in Sanskrit pu, pavaka, and Gr. irup; the ultimate origin is usually taken to be a root meaning to purify, cf. Lat. purus)

fire are chiefly See also:

• FELT (cognate with Ger. Filz, Du. vilt, Swed. and Dan. fill; the root is unknown; the word has given Med. Lat. filtrum, " filter ")

felt in Srinagar, where the See also:

• WOOD, ANTHONY A2 (1632-1695)
• WOOD, JOHN GEORGE (1827—1889)
• WOOD, MRS HENRY [ELLEN] (1814—1887)
• WOOD, SEARLES VALENTINE (1798—188o)

wood houses and their thatched See also:

• ROOFS

roofs fall an easy See also:

• PREY (0. Fr. preie, mod. proie, Lat. praeda, booty, from prae and the root hed—seen in prehendere, prendere, to grasp)

prey to the flames . The See also:

• NATIONAL

national See also:

• HABIT (through the French from Lat. habitus, from habere, to have, hold, or, in a reflective sense, to be in a certain condition; in many of the English senses the French use habitude, not habit)

habit of carrying a kangar, or small See also:

• BRAZIER (from the Fr. brasier, which comes from braise, hot charcoal)

brazier, underneath the clothes for the purpose of warming the See also:

• BODY

body, is a fruitful cause of fires . Srinagar is said to have been burnt down eighteen times . Many disastrous floods are recorded, the greatest being the terrible inundation which followed the slipping of the Khadanyar mountain below Baramula in A.D . 879 . The channel of the Jhelum river was blocked and a large part of thevalley submerged . In 1841 a serious See also:

• FLOOD (in O. Eng. flod, a word common to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. Flut, Dutch vloed, from the same root as is seen in " flow," " float ")
• FLOOD, HENRY (1732-1791)

flood caused great damage to life and property; there was another in 1893, when six out of the seven See also:

• BRIDGES
• BRIDGES, ROBERT (1844– )

bridges in Srinagar were washed away, 25,426 acres under crops were submerged and 2225 houses were wrecked; another flood occurred in July 1903, when the bund between the Dal Lake and the See also:

• CANAL
• CANAL (from Lat. canalis, " channel " and " kennel " being doublets of the word)

canal gave way, and the lake See also:

• ROSE
• ROSE (Rosa)
• ROSE, GEORGE (1744-1818)
• ROSE, HUGH JAMES (1795—1838)
• ROSE, WILLIAM STEWART (1775-1843)

rose 10 ft. in half an See also:

• HOUR

hour . Between two and three thousand houses in and around Srinagar collapsed, while over 4o miles of the See also:

• TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook)

tonga road were submerged .

Since the 15th See also:

• CENTURY (from Lat. centuria, a division of a hundred men)

century eleven great earthquakes have occurred, all of long duration and accompanied by great loss of life . During the 19th century there were four severe earthquakes, the last two occurring in 1864 and 1885, when some 3500 people were killed . Native historians See also:

• RECORD (Lat. recordari, to recall to mind, from cor, heart or mind)

record nineteen great famines, the last two occurring in 1831 and 1877 . In 1878 it was reported that only two-fifths of the total population of the valley survived . During the 19th century also there were ten epidemics of cholera, all more or less disastrous, while the worst (in 1892) was probably the last . During that year 5781 persons died in Srinagar and 5931 in the villages . The centre of infection is generally supposed to be the squalid See also:

• CAPITAL (i.e. capital stock or fund)
• CAPITAL (Lat. caput, head)

capital of Srinagar, and some efforts to improve its sanitation have been made of recent years . Crops.—The See also:

• STAPLE

staple See also:

• CROP (a word common. in various forms, such as Germ. Kropf, to many Teutonic languages for a swelling, excrescence, round head or top of anything; it appears also in Romanic languages derived from Teutonic, in Fr. as troupe, whence the English " crupper "

crop of the valley is See also:

• RICE (Greek 6p6 a, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arroz, derived from the Arabic)
• RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844)
• RICE, JAMES (1843-1882)

rice, which forms the chief See also:

• FOOD
• FOOD (like the verb " to feed," from a Teutonic root, whence O. Eng. foda; cf. " fodder "; connected with Gr. lrareicOae, to feed)

food of the people . See also:

• INDIAN

Indian See also:

• CORN (a common Teutonic word; cf. Lat. granum, seed, grain)
• CORN (fromm Lat. corms, horn)

corn comes next; See also:

• WHEAT
• WHEAT (Triticum)

wheat, See also:

• BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)

barley and oats are also grown . Every See also:

• KIND (O. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin," supra)

kind of See also:

• ENGLISH

English vegetable thrives well, especially See also:

• ASPARAGUS

asparagus, See also:

• ARTICHOKE

artichoke, seakale, broad beans, See also:

• SCARLET

scarlet-runners, beetroot, cauliflower and See also:

• CABBAGE

cabbage . See also:

• FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to enjoy)

Fruit trees are met with all over the valley, wild but bearing fruit, and the cultivated orchards yield See also:

• PEARS

pears, apples, peaches, cherries, &c., equal to the best European produce . The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or See also:

• PLANE

plane, See also:

• MAPLE, SIR JOHN BLUNDELL, BART

maple, See also:

• BIRCH
• BIRCH (Betula)
• BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813–1885)
• BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766)

birch and See also:

• WALNUT (Juglans)

walnut .

There are state departments of viticulture, hops, See also:

• HORTICULTURE
• HORTICULTURE (Lat. hortus, a garden)

horticulture and sericulture- A See also:

• COMPLETE

complete list of the See also:

• FLORA

flora and See also:

• FAUNA

fauna of the valley will be found in Sir Walter Lawrence's See also:

• BOOK

book on Kashmir . See also:

• INDUSTRIES

Industries.—The chief See also:

• INDUSTRY (Lat. industria, from indu-, a form of the pre, position in, and either stare, to stand, or struere, to pile up)

industry of Srinagar was formerly the See also:

• WEAVING

weaving of the celebrated Kashmir See also:

• SHAWL

shawl, which See also:

• DATES

dates back to the days of the See also:

• EMPEROR (Fr. empereur, from the Lat. imperator)

emperor See also:

• BABER

Baber . These shawls first became fashionable in See also:

• EUROPE

Europe in the reign of See also:

• NAPOLEON

Napoleon, when they fetched from £io to £too; but the industry received a See also:

• BLOW, JOHN (1648-1708)

blow at the time of the Franco-See also:

• GERMAN
• GERMAN, DUTCH AND SCANDINAVIAN

German See also:

• WAR
• WAR (O. Eng. werre, Fr. guerre, of Teutonic origin; cf. O.H.G. werran, to confound)

War, and the See also:

• FAMINE (Lat. fames, hunger)

famine of 1877 scattered the weavers . The place of the Kashmir shawl has to some extent been taken by the Kashmir See also:

• CARPET

carpet, but the most thriving industry now is that of See also:

• SILK

silk-weaving . Srinagar is also celebrated for its See also:

• SILVER

silver-work, See also:

• PAPIER

papier mach6 and wood-See also:

• CARVING

carving . The minerals and metals of the Jammu district are promising, and a See also:

• COMPANY

company has been formed to work them . See also:

• COAL

Coal of See also:

• FAIR

fair quality has been found, but the difficulties of transport interfere with its working . See also:

• HISTORY

History.—The metrical See also:

• CHRONICLE (from Gr. Xpovos, time)

chronicle of the See also:

• KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF

kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini, was pronounced by See also:

• PROFESSOR (the Latin noun formed from the verb profiteri, to declare publicly, to acknowledge, profess)

Professor H . H . See also:

• WILSON, ALEXANDER (1766-1813)
• WILSON, HENRY (1812–1875)
• WILSON, HORACE HAYMAN (1786–1860)
• WILSON, JAMES (1742—1798)
• WILSON, JAMES (1835— )
• WILSON, JAMES HARRISON (1837– )
• WILSON, JOHN (1627-1696)
• WILSON, JOHN (178 1854)
• WILSON, ROBERT (d. 1600)
• WILSON, SIR DANIEL (1816–1892)
• WILSON, SIR ROBERT THOMAS (1777—1849)
• WILSON, SIR WILLIAM JAMES ERASMUS
• WILSON, THOMAS (1663-1755)
• WILSON, THOMAS (c. 1525-1581)
• WILSON, WOODROW (1856— )

Wilson to be the only Sanskrit See also:

• COMPOSITION
• COMPOSITION (Lat. compositio, from componere, to put together)

composition yet discovered to which the See also:

• TITLE (0. Fr. title, mod. titre, from Lat. titulus)

title of history can with any propriety be applied . It first became known to the Mahommedans when, on See also:

• AKBAR, AKHBAR

Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor . A See also:

• TRANSLATION

translation into See also:

• PERSIAN
• PERSIAN, SYRIAN, EGYPTIAN AND TURKISH

Persian was made by his See also:

• ORDER
• ORDER (through Fr. ordre, for earlier ordene, from Lat. ordo, ordinis, rank, service, arrangement; the ultimate source is generally taken to be the root seen in Lat. oriri, rise, arise, begin; cf. " origin ")
• ORDER, HOLY

order, and a See also:

• SUMMARY

summary of its contents, from this Persian translation, is given by See also:

• ABU

Abu'l Fazl in the A'in-i-Akbari .

The Rajatarangini, the first of a See also:

• SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join)

series of four Sanskrit histories, was written about the middle of the 12th century by P . Kalhana . His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings now lost . Commencing with traditional history of very See also:

• EARLY
• EARLY, JUBAL ANDERSON (1816-1894)

early times, it comes down to the reign of Sangrama See also:

• DEVA (mod. Chester)
• DEVA (Sanskrit " heavenly ")

Deva, soo6; the second work, by Jonaraja, takes up the history in continuation of Kalhana's, and, entering the See also:

• MAHOMMEDAN

Mahommedan See also:

• PERIOD
• PERIOD (Gr. irepioSos, a going or way round, circuit, aepi, round, and &Sis, way, road)

period, gives an See also:

• ACCOUNT
• ACCOUNT (through O. Fr. acont, Late Lat. comptum, cornputare, to calculate)

account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412 . P . Srivara carried on the record to the See also:

• ACCESSION (from Lat. accedere, to go to, to approach)

accession of Fah Shah, 1486 . And the fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the See also:

• INCORPORATION (from Lat. incorporare, to form into a body)

incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the See also:

• MOGUL, MOCHAL, or MIGHAL

Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588 . In the Rajatarangini it is stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake, and that it was drained by the great rishi or See also:

• SAGE, RUSSELL (1816-1906)

sage, Kasyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the See also:

• GAP

gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-See also:

• MULA

mula) . When Kashmir had been drained, he brought in the Brahmans to occupy it . This is still the See also:

• LOCAL

local tradition, and in the existing physical See also:

• CONDITION (Lat. condicio, from condicere, to agree upon, arrange; not connected with conditio, from condere, conditum, to put together)

condition of the country we may see some ground for the See also:

• STORY, JOHN (c. 1510-1571)
• STORY, JOSEPH (1779-1845)
• STORY, ROBERT HERBERT (1835-1907)
• STORY, WILLIAM WETMORE (1819—1895)

story which has taken this See also:

• FORM (Lat. forma)

form . The name of Kasyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kasyapa-pur—a name which has been plausibly identified with the Kavaairvpos of Hecataeus (Steph . Byz., s.v.) and Kaosrarupos of See also:

• HERODOTUS (c. 484-425 B.C.)

Herodotus (iii .

102, iv . 44) . Kashmir is the country meant also by See also:

• PTOLEMY (CLAUDIUS PTOLEMAEUS)

Ptolemy's Kavailpta . The ancient name Kasyapa-pur was applied to the See also:

• KINGDOM

kingdom of Kashmir when it comprehended great part of the Punjab and extended beyond the Indus . In the 7th century Kashmir is said by the See also:

• CHINESE, JAPANESE AND

Chinese traveller Hsuan Tsang to have included See also:

• KABUL

Kabul and the Punjab, and the hill region of Gandhara, the country of the Gandarae of classical See also:

• GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yil, earth, and ypiickty, to write)

geography . At an early date the Sanskrit name of the country became Kasmir . The earliest inhabitants, according to the Rajatarangini, were the people called Naga, a word which signifies " snake." The history shows the prevalence in early times of See also:

• TREE (0. Eng. treo, treow, cf. Dan. tree, Swed. Odd, tree, trd, timber; allied forms are found in Russ. drevo, Gr. opus, oak, and 36pv, spear, Welsh derw, Irish darog, oak, and Skr. dare, wood)
• TREE, SIR HERBERT BEERBOHM (1853- )

tree and See also:

• SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. "reptile " from repere, Gr.4 ml-eta)

serpent See also:

• WORSHIP (i.e. " worth-ship," O. Eng. weor8scipe)

worship, of which some sculptured stones found in Kashmir still retain the memorials . The town of Islamabad is called also by its ancient name Anant-nag (" eternal snake") . The source of the Jhelum is at Vir-nag (the powerful snake), &c . The other races mentioned as inhabiting this country and the neighbouring hills are Gandhari, Khasa and Daradae . The Khasa people are supposed to have given the name Kasmir . In the Mahabharata the Kasmira and Daradae are named together among the See also:

• KSHATTRIYA

Kshattriya races of northern India .

The question whether, in the See also:

• IMMIGRATION (from Lat. in, into, and tnigrare, to depart)

immigration of the See also:

• ARYANS

Aryans into India, Kashmir was taken on the way, or entered afterwards by that people after they had reached the Punjab from the north-west, appears to require an See also:

• ANSWER (derived from and, against, and the same root as swear)

answer in favour of the latter view (see vol. ii. of Dr J . See also:

• MUIR, JOHN (1810-1882)
• MUIR, SIR WILLIAM (1819-1905)

Muir's Sanskrit Texts) . The See also:

• ARYAN

Aryan races of Kashmir and surrounding hills, which have at the See also:

• PRESENT

present time See also:

• SEPARATE

separate See also:

• GEOGRAPHICAL

geographical See also:

• DISTRIBUTION (Lat. distribuere, to deal out)

distribution, are given by Mr See also:

• DREW
• DREW, SAMUEL (1765-1833)

Drew as Kashmiri (mostly Mahommedan), in the Kashmir basin and a few scattered places outside; Dard (mostly Mahommedan) in Gilgit and hills north of Kashmir; See also:

• DOGRA

Dogra (See also:

• HINDU

Hindu) in Jamma; Dogra (Mahommedan, called Chibali) in Punch and hill country west of Kashmir; See also:

• PAHARI (properly Pahari, the language of the mountains)

Pahari or mountaineers (Hindu) in Kishtwar, east of Kashmir, and hills about the valley of the Chenab . In the time of See also:

• ASOKA

Asoka, about 245 B.C., one of the Indian Buddhist See also:

• MISSIONS (Lat. missio, a sending)

missions was sent to Kashmir and Gandhara . After his See also:

• DEATH

death See also:

• BRAHMANISM

Brahmanism revived . Then in the time of the three Kushan princes, Huvishka, Jushka and See also:

• KANISHKA

Kanishka, who ruled over Kashmir about the beginning of the See also:

• CHRISTIAN
• CHRISTIAN, WILLIAM (1608-1663)

Christian era, See also:

• BUDDHISM

Buddhism was to a great extent restored, though for several centuries the two religions existed together in Kashmir, See also:

• HINDUISM

Hinduism pre-dominating . Yet Kashmir, when Buddhism was gradually losing its hold, continued to send Buddhist teachers to other lands . In this Hindu-Buddhist period, and chiefly between the 5th and loth centuries of the Christian era, were erected the Hindu temples in Kashmir . In the 6th and 7th centuries Kashmir was visited by some of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India . The country is called Shie-mi in the narrative of To Yeng and Sung Yun (578) . One of the Chinese travellers of the next century was for a time an See also:

• ELEPHANT

elephant-tamer to the See also: